Solid mechanics, compared to mechanics of materials or strength of materials, is generally considered to be a higher level course. It is usually offered in higher semester to senior students. There are many textbooks available on solid mechanics, but they generally include a large part of theory of elasticity with in depth mathematical formulations. The usual prerequisites are one or two semester course on elementary strength of materials and a thorough mathematical background, including scalar, vector, and tensor field theory and cartesian and curvilinear index notation. The difference in levels between these books and elementary texts on strength of materials is generally formidable. However, in our experience of teaching this course for many years at premier institutes like IIT Kharagpur and Jadavpur University, despite its complexity, senior students generally cope well with the course using the readily available textbooks.

However, there is a vast student population pursuing mechanical, civil, or allied engineering disciplines across the country in colleges where AICTE curriculum is followed. Through several years of interaction with this group of students, we have found that there is no suitable textbook that suits their requirements. The book is primarily aimed at this group of students, attempting to bridge the gap between complex formulations in the theory of elasticity and elementary strength of materials in a simplified manner for better understanding. Index notations have been avoided, and the mathematical derivations are restricted to second-order differential equations, their solution methodologies, and only a few special functions, such as stress function and Laplacian operators.

The text follows more or less the AICTE guidelines and consists of twelve chapters. The first five chapters introduce the engineering aspects of solid mechanics and establish the basic theorems of elasticity, governing equations, and their solution methodologies. The next four chapters discuss thick cylinders, rotating disks, torsion of members with both circular and noncircular cross-sections, and stress concentration in some depth using the elasticity approaches. Thermoelasticity is an important issue in the design of high-speed machinery and many other engineering applications. This is dealt with in some detail in the tenth chapter. Problems on contact between curved bodies in two-dimensional and three-dimensional situations can be challenging, and they have wide applications in mechanical engineering such as in bearing and gear technology.

3.1 STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT [LO1]

When a body is subjected to external forces, its behavior depends on the magnitude and distribution of forces and properties of the body material. Depending on these factors, the body may deform elastically or plastically, or it may fracture. The body may also fail by fatigue when subjected to repetitive loading. Here we are primarily interested in elastic deformation of materials.

In order to establish the concept of stress and stress at a point, let us consider a straight bar of uniform cross-section of area A and subjected to uniaxial force F as shown in Figure 3.1. Stress at a typical section A - A′ is normally given as σ = F/A. This is true only if the force is uniformly distributed over the area A, but this is rarely true. Therefore, definition of stress must be considered by progressively reducing the area until it is small enough such that the force may be considered to be uniformly distributed.

To understand this, consider a body subjected to external forces P1, P2, P3, and P4 as shown in Figure 3.2. If we now cut the body in two pieces,

Internal forces f1, f2, f3, etc. are developed to keep the pieces in equilibrium. Now consider an infinitesimal element of area ΔA Dat the cut section and let the resultant force on the element be Δf.

Chapter 2 presents the book’s main argument about how party rules shape membership. Previous literature is split in its portrayal of party members – some scholars describe members as extremist ideologues, whereas others depict them as partisan loyalists. To reconcile these competing views, Chapter 2 develops a spatial model of membership in which members receive utility from government policy and party proximity, as well as features of party membership unrelated to ideology. The model demonstrates that party rules play a pivotal role in shaping a party’s overall membership level and distribution. The model predicts that decentralized parties attract more members than centralized parties, all else equal. However, decentralized parties’ members should be more ideologically extreme than their counterparts in centralized parties.

Chapter 1 sets the stage by comparing leadership elections in the two major UK parties following the Brexit referendum. While Conservative members of parliament acted swiftly to replace their leader, Labour was unable to follow suit, leading to an unprecedented internal crisis. These divergent paths, Kernell argues, can best be explained by attention to party rules. After briefly extending the comparison to discuss party rules in several other countries, Chapter 1 summarizes the book’s core arguments and the formal model, introduces the evidence, and provides a roadmap for the rest of the book.

Chapter 3 guides the reader inside parties by examining how candidate nominations, leadership selection, and policy platforms operate in modern democracies around the world. Kernell examines variation among these rules both within and across countries, as well as over time, and proposes a coding methodology for defining the degree of membership influence in each of the three primary dimensions. The chapter also discusses case selection and data collection.

Chapter 5 builds on the observational findings from the previous chapter to test the hypotheses using two survey experiments performed on a sample of British Labour voters. The first experiment manipulates the selective incentives available to members by changing the cost of joining. Not surprisingly, people are more interested in joining when fees are low. The second experiment manipulates the party’s instrumental incentives by stating members can (or cannot) select party leaders and parliamentary candidates, as well as attend events where they may formally participate in determining the party’s future policy direction. The findings support the hypotheses generated by Chapter 2’s formal model: decentralization increases membership, conditional on voter-party alignment.