The Cambridge History of the Papacy is organized to provide readers with a critical–historical survey of the structural development of the papacy as an institution and as an actor in Church history, and in world history. It is hard to imagine a sphere of human activity over the past two millennia that has not been influenced by, and influenced in turn by, papal action – be it in the domains of religious belief and practice; social, cultural, and political thought; art, science, medicine, ethics, diplomacy, and international relations. Four questions – each addressed throughout the three volumes of the present work – have framed that vision across vast chronological and geographical expanses: the pope’s centrality within the Catholic Church, the primacy of papal power as an instrument of governance, the papacy’s cultural influence in society and culture, and the implications of secularity for its place in the lives of believers and non-believers alike. Each question – and the search for answers – converges around the fundamental question of papal authority: its original claims; the ebbs and flows of its effective reach; and the numerous ways in which claims, and expressions of papal authority and supremacy, have been contested within the Catholic tradition, and from without.

Pontiffs from the Middle Ages to the present have portrayed Islam in widely differing terms. Indeed, before the twentieth century, popes rarely employ the terms “Islam” and “Muslim,” preferring terms such as “Saracens,” “Turks,” or “Mohammedans.” The ways they portrayed Islam and Muslims varied according to the perceived doctrinal and military threat posed to the Roman Church and according to the individual inclinations of different popes. But they also varied (sometimes in the writings of the same pope) according to a variety of specific interests: the popes’ engagement with Islam and Muslims is alternately military, political, diplomatic, theological, or pastoral. Hence very different assessments of Islam and Muslims emerge from a great diversity of papal sources: crusading encyclicals, canon law texts dealing with the legal status of Muslims living in Christian lands, letters to Muslim rulers, correspondence with Church officials in Muslim territories (bishops, friars, missionaries, or others). This brief chronological survey examines the varying and evolving portrayals of Islam and Muslims in papal documents, from the early Middle Ages through Vatican II and until the pontificate of Francis I.

The Cambridge History of the Papacy is organized to provide readers with a critical–historical survey of the structural development of the papacy as an institution and as an actor in Church history, and in world history. It is hard to imagine a sphere of human activity over the past two millennia that has not been influenced by, and influenced in turn by, papal action – be it in the domains of religious belief and practice; social, cultural, and political thought; art, science, medicine, ethics, diplomacy, and international relations. Four questions – each addressed throughout the three volumes of the present work – have framed that vision across vast chronological and geographical expanses: the pope’s centrality within the Catholic Church, the primacy of papal power as an instrument of governance, the papacy’s cultural influence in society and culture, and the implications of secularity for its place in the lives of believers and non-believers alike. Each question – and the search for answers – converges around the fundamental question of papal authority: its original claims; the ebbs and flows of its effective reach; and the numerous ways in which claims, and expressions of papal authority and supremacy, have been contested within the Catholic tradition, and from without.

The Cambridge History of the Papacy is organized to provide readers with a critical–historical survey of the structural development of the papacy as an institution and as an actor in Church history, and in world history. It is hard to imagine a sphere of human activity over the past two millennia that has not been influenced by, and influenced in turn by, papal action – be it in the domains of religious belief and practice; social, cultural, and political thought; art, science, medicine, ethics, diplomacy, and international relations. Four questions – each addressed throughout the three volumes of the present work – have framed that vision across vast chronological and geographical expanses: the pope’s centrality within the Catholic Church, the primacy of papal power as an instrument of governance, the papacy’s cultural influence in society and culture, and the implications of secularity for its place in the lives of believers and non-believers alike. Each question – and the search for answers – converges around the fundamental question of papal authority: its original claims; the ebbs and flows of its effective reach; and the numerous ways in which claims, and expressions of papal authority and supremacy, have been contested within the Catholic tradition, and from without.

European history has been defined as a field by a notion of Europe – its borders, values, civilization, and nationalities – that is structured by Christianity and its secular legacies. Rather than seeking to globalize the history of Europe by considering the impact of European Christianity on other parts of the world, and how it was impacted by them, this chapter challenges that narrative. It asks how the historiography of Europe can be integrated with the historiographies of Europe’s historic non-Christian populations, namely Jews and Muslims. These are historiographies with their own rhythms, conceptual frameworks, and geographies in which Europe carries quite different connotations. They shift our attention from the north and west to the south and east, enjoining us to think differently about Europe and the diversity that has always existed within it. Separately, these historiographies speak to very different experiences. Taken together, they help us to think differently about the interface between Europe and the world and to write the history of Europe itself against the grain.

This chapter introduces the notion of an ad libitum or at-will use of the constitutional concept of public order. The concept of public order fulfils an important role in the protection of minorities but also extends far beyond the interests of religious and ethnoreligious minorities. The Dutch prohibition of the full-face veil demonstrated a susceptibility of the concept of public order to social norms. Initially a flagship of Geert Wilders’ anti-Islam movement, the Cabinet in some ways successfully captured the topic and diminished the language of aggressive othering of Islam to issues of communication and a vague concept of living together. This could be understood against the backdrop of political gains made on the far-right across Europe, and the law perhaps contributed to an attempt at containing this threat of political gains from the far-right.

This chapter opens a series of chapters with case studies on France, the Netherlands, Hungary, and Poland. The institution of French laïcité is commonly understood as referring to a strict separation of church and state. This chapter explains how laïcité has become entangled in the pseudo-constitutional notion of vivre ensemble and the rising significance of social norms for the substantiation of the legal concept of l’ordre public. This is inferred from two particular expressions of constitutional intolerance: first, the overly general and restrictive prohibition of the full-face veil in public spaces, which culminated in the S.A.S. v. France case. Second, it details the expansion of the legal concept of laïcité as expressed in the 2021 Law Concerning the Respect for the Principles of the Republic, which exercises extensive control over the organisation of religious institutions, sources of funding, and their political loyalty to the Republic.

This chapter explores the Islamic teachings on pregnancy, breastfeeding, and child welfare, highlighting the religion’s emphasis on the well-being of mothers and children. It explores the Qur’anic verses and Prophetic Hadiths that underline the importance of social support, nutrition, and education in the lives of mothers and children. By aligning Islamic principles and global initiatives, such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, this chapter demonstrates the contributions of Islam to the universal pursuit of human development and well-being. This exploration aims to provide valuable insights into the role of Islam in promoting a supportive, nurturing, and educational environment for mothers and children, fostering a better understanding of the religion’s perspectives on these critical aspects.

In Islam, sexual relations are permissible within marriage between a man and a woman. Islam encourages fertility between legally married couples; therefore, the treatment of infertility is permissible. Contraception use for family planning is permissible, but the use of contraception for permanently limiting the number of children is debated. The use of a third party in reproduction is not accepted in Islam. It is advisable that Muslim men or women seek medical care for sexual and reproductive issues from Muslim health care providers of their respective sex.

The chapter examines principles and values of communication and societal relationships from an Islamic perspective. It highlights the significance of communication in Islam, including language, communication theory, and the principles of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). The chapter explores different levels of Islamic communication, cultural influences, and communication within Muslim families across age groups. It addresses the challenges Muslims face in a globalized world and the impact of communication technologies on Islamic culture. The chapter offers health practitioners and educators an insight into effective Islamic-based communication in therapeutic relationships for individuals with regards to addressing mental and physical health issues. This chapter also briefly discusses the contemporary challenges of globalization and communication as it relates to Islamic principles.

Religious and cultural health and food practices are informed and influenced by religious texts and beliefs. These beliefs and practices can impact dietary and food choices, which in turn can impact health. The Mediterranean dietary pattern, including regional variations of countries in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, is particularly aligned with Qur’anic guidance. The healthful dietary practices and health benefits conferred by specific foods mentioned in the Qur’an include and guide to components emphasized in the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet). This chapter examines Qur’anic guidance on food, nutrition, and dietary practices and, in particular, how this guidance relates to the traditional MedDiet. This information can be used to tailor acceptable and healthful dietary patterns for those in diverse Muslim communities. In addition, the health benefits of the traditional dietary patterns of Mediterranean countries, including the Middle East and North Africa, can and have been widely adopted globally for health interventions.

This chapter delineates the concept, mechanism, and operational frameworks of zakat (Islamic obligatory charity) and waqf (Islamic endowment) and their potential roles in achieving health and well-being from among the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The Sharia prescription of zakat originates from the Holy Qur’an, whereas the conceptual premises of waqf are derived from the Prophetic traditions (Sunnah). Zakat is obligatory once a year, and the heads of its beneficiaries are well-defined. In comparison, waqf implies a voluntary form of charity. Both zakat and waqf have a history of contribution to the socioeconomic development of communities in general and in supporting health and well-being in particular. This chapter delves into the modern relevance of waqf and zakat, particularly in the context of health and well-being of communities. The chapter attempts to contextualize the roles and significance of waqf and zakat in providing the society with the means of maintaining health and well-being.

This chapter focuses on the intersection of Islamic doctrines and environmental stewardship, drawing insights from the Holy Qur’an and Prophetic Hadith. Central to this is the narrative of humanity’s role as Earth’s stewards (Khalifah). Verses from the Holy Qur’an present nature and the environment as a divine testament worthy of conservation and protection. Complementing this, the Prophetic Hadith provides actionable guidelines on environmental ethics, encompassing conservation and ethical animal treatment. Together, they advocate for a harmonious relationship with nature, emphasizing conservation, respect, and responsible stewardship. As contemporary societies grapple with escalating ecological challenges and climatic change, these divine teachings lend themselves as a religiously congruent approach to addressing these challenges. Embracing Islamic principles can pave the way for sustainable practices, ensuring a balance between spiritual obligations and ecological responsibilities. In essence, Islamic traditions, with their rich environmental ethos, can guide societies towards a more sustainable and harmonious future.

Islam counts sleep as one of the signs of the greatness of Allah (God) and urges followers to investigate this important sign. Sleep and sleep manners are notable subjects in Islamic sources. The Qur’an and Hadith discuss different forms of sleep, the importance of sleep, and healthy sleep habits. The types of sleep described in the Qur’an resemble sleep stages recognized in current sleep medicine. The Qur’an stresses the significance of preserving a regular circadian pattern of light and darkness exposure. A mid-day nap (Qailulah) is an established tradition for Muslims, and the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) advocated naps as helpful. Sleep practice and instructions by the Prophet (PBUH) resemble several sleep hygiene regulations described in modern medicine and behavioral therapy. The Prophet’s (PBUH) practices include sleeping on the right side rather than in the prone position, which is discouraged. We recommend that sleep researchers analyze Islamic literature to understand archaic society’s views, manners, and practices regarding sleep and sleep disorders.

This chapter examines the Islamic concepts of positive holistic health and its contribution to contemporary public health programs. The incorporation of Islamic teachings into public health practices has been advocated to maintain health of the society and improve health care. The goal of today’s health care system is to treat the sick and improve quality of life. Positive health’s approach builds on the assets people have to help them increase their chances of living a healthier life. Potential assets include stable family life, positive attitude, optimism, and fitness. The chapter discusses the impact of religious teachings on Muslim behavior and highlights the role of faith, family, and observance of health principles, including salat and fasting, in achieving physical and mental stability along with holistic health. It also focuses on the importance of good social relationships, life satisfaction, and their effects on common diseases such as heart disease.