Entrenchment is a constitutional tool that renders legal change more difficult. This chapter examines the forms entrenchment can take, and the reasons for and against entrenchment. It argues that entrenchment can, on occasion, help resolve constitutional problems by requiring law-making institutions to depart from the normal way in which they effect legal change. Entrenchment rules are at their most attractive where there is a connection between the reason for entrenchment – the reason why the normal rules of legal change are problematic in a particular area of law – the type of entrenchment rule adopted, and the area of law entrenched.

This chapter considers Shelley’s diverse and complicated reflections on death in his prose and poetry. Shelley constantly interrogates and reads death as a matter of social, poetical, and political concern. It has no single systematic structure or meaning for him, and its conceptual irreducibility evokes the degree to which Shelley studied it with rigorous openness in order to maintain a theoretical scepticism regarding the many rhetorical uses and abuses of mortality.

Unit basis vectors emerged from Hamilton’s quaternions, and quite literally form the basis of rotation and attitude. I begin with their role in the dot product, and then study the matrix determinant. This determines the handedness of any three vectors, which is necessary for building a right-handed cartesian coordinate system. That idea naturally gives rise to the cross product, which I study in some detail, including in higher dimensions. The chapter ends with comments on matrix multiplication, and in particular the fast multiplication of sparse 3×3 matrices that we use frequently later in the book.

This chapter recounts some of the most important work that has been achieved or is ongoing: at global level (in the United Nations system); at regional level (especially in the African, American, and European human rights systems); by the International Committee of the Cross; and especially by pioneering civil society organizations (local and international human rights bodies). Thus, for instance, the seminal role of Amnesty International in promoting the adoption and implementation of a global treaty on the prohibition of torture—and drawing attention to the problem of torture more broadly—cannot be overstated.

The private sector is virtually nonexistent in Indian country. Consequently, reservations experience chronically high rates of unemployment and poverty. Tribes have implemented numerous laws to foster development; however, the private sector is yet to thrive. Legal uncertainty is a major reason why. Although tribes have the ability to make their own laws, the Supreme Court limits tribes’ ability to exercise jurisdiction over non-Indians. In 1981, the Supreme Court held tribes can exercise jurisdiction over non-Indians who enter a consensual relationship with the tribe or its citizens, and tribes can also assert jurisdiction over non-Indians engaged in behavior that imperils tribal welfare. These categories have been construed extremely narrowly. Furthermore, determining whether a transaction is subject to tribal jurisdiction often requires years of costly litigation. Another impediment to tribal economic development is state taxation because the Supreme Court permits states to tax Indian country commerce. This means tribes cannot collect taxes because this would result in dual taxation. Without tax revenue, tribes struggle to fund the infrastructure businesses need. Additionally, it is often unclear whether the state can regulate an activity in Indian country. As a result of these factors, businesses avoid Indian country.

An overview of the physical state of Rome in the year 900, followed by an introduction to each of the major categories of material culture to be discussed: architecture, painting, icons, sculpture, inscriptions, manuscripts, ceramics, and coins. A rationale is provided for the format of the book: not a diachronic chronological survey as such, but instead organized around four overarching themes.

Even though Shelley’s time in Switzerland in 1814 and 1816 adds up to just four months, during which he wrote surprisingly little, the alpine nation played an outsized role in his cultural canonisation. This article bases itself on a variety of published and manuscript texts by members of the Shelley circle and their contemporaries in order to review both tours, arguing that the poet was eager to find in Switzerland the living signs of a republican paradise and to view that country as romance rather than reality. The Alps provided the poet with powerful images of the natural sublime, which he associated with intellectual beauty and revolutionary necessity. On the other hand, despite his deepened appreciation of Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the poet remained far more sceptical of Switzerland’s mythic liberty and virtue.

Making Do unpicks the devastating impact of World War II by focusing on fabric. As the war ended, a ‘textile famine’ loomed. Carruthers argues that material stuff – garments and footwear, as well as blankets and bedding – was critical to how Britons refashioned relationships within Britain and with allies and former enemies. Clothing lay at the heart of an interlocking series of postwar entitlement struggles. Clothes rationing, introduced in 1941, lasted until 1949. With clothing and shoes chronically scarce, policymakers, military commanders and humanitarians had to adjudicate whose needs to prioritize as uniforms were discarded in Britain and abroad. Service personnel, prisoners of war, former inhabitants of Axis camps all required ‘civilianized’ clothing as they reconstructed postwar lives. Making Do foregrounds mobility as central to the history of postwar adjustment, as millions of people and garments changed places and shapes. Military surplus found myriad new uses with people continuing to ‘make do and mend’. Carruthers offers an intimate portrait of everyday life in postwar Britain – and in transient spaces inhabited by veterans, relief workers, displaced persons and ‘GI brides’ – as they attempted to reconstruct new relationships in an age of persistent austerity shadowed by catastrophe.

The issue of international migration raises distinctive normative challenges for liberal democratic states, which regard certain rights and liberties as fundamental and have institutionalized them through constitutions. Most migrants want little more than to make better lives for themselves. If people wish to migrate across borders, why shouldn’t they be able to? States exercise power over borders, but what, if anything, justifies this power? If states are justified in excluding some and accepting others, what should be their criteria of selection? This chapter provides an overview of the leading normative positions on migration. It considers two main positions: arguments for open borders and arguments for state sovereignty. It then makes the case for a middle-ground position of qualified state sovereignty, “controlled borders and open doors.” The final section discusses two challenges to liberal constitutionalism posed by migration: what is owed to refugees outside a state’s borders and unauthorized migrants inside a state’s borders.

This essay examines the literary interchange between Percy Shelley and John Keats through a comparative reading of their poems, ‘The Mask of Anarchy’ and ‘To Autumn’, both of which were written in explicit (Shelley) or implicit (Keats) response to the Peterloo Massacre. Drawing special attention to the formal and stylistic differences between these two poets, I argue that each demonstrates a distinctive attitude towards argument. More particularly, I suggest that Keats and Shelley are uniquely interested in the question of whether or not a poem can make a political claim and, more broadly, in the relationship between politics and aesthetics.

Federalism is a distinctive form of constitutional rule but one that has largely been neglected by both political and constitutional theory. Existing accounts of federalism tend to focus almost exclusively upon its institutional manifestation. What is lacking is an account of the common conceptual underpinnings that unite these various institutional forms within the genus of one constitutional idea. In this chapter Stephen Tierney argues that the core idea of federalism can only be arrived at by way of constitutional theory. Constitutional theory explains both how and why law is used to manage political power. Federal constitutions manage and transform political power for a discrete purpose that is fundamentally distinguishable from other constitutional forms. This chapter contends that federalism must be addressed as a specific genus of constitutional government for the modern state which, in the act of constitutional union, gives foundational recognition and accommodation to the state’s constituent territorial pluralism. The purpose of the federal constitution is to maintain the foundational relationship between pluralism and union through the creation and reconciliation of different orders of government. This marks a significant fork in the road between federal and unitary constitutionalism, not just in institutional terms but at the most fundamental level of constitutional identity and legitimacy.

Conservative reviewers berated Percy Shelley for his political radicalism, his opposition to religious orthodoxy, and his alleged personal immorality. The Tory Quarterly Review subjected Shelley to violent personal attacks, to which he responded in Prometheus Unbound and Adonais. In 1821, pirate editions of Queen Mab provoked some of Shelley’s most vituperative and partisan reviews. Nevertheless, even politically antagonistic reviewers acknowledged the aesthetic merits of Shelley’s poetry. Moreover, positive and negative reviews alike registered the originality of his stylistic innovations and experiments with poetic form. Many of the passages quoted by hostile reviewers as evidence of Shelley’s allegedly incomprehensible diction include striking examples of his distinctive figurative language. In perceptive articles by John Gibson Lockhart, the Tory Blackwood’s Magazine defended Shelley’s poetry while condemning his political principles. Meanwhile, Leigh Hunt consistently defended Shelley in the pro-reform Examiner. Eventually, the elegiac reception of Adonais fed into the posthumous mythologising of Shelley.

The introduction provides a potted history of torture since ancient times and its use and purpose. The most common forms of torture are summarized. These include violence to extract information or a confession or to punish someone for an act they are suspected to have committed. The death penalty as a form of torture or other ill-treatment is also described.