Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-sqlfs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-12T20:15:45.698Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

14 - Seasonality, social organization, and sexual dimorphism in primates

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2009

By
J. Michael Plavcan ,
Carel P. van Schaik  and
W. Scott McGraw
Edited by
Diane K. Brockman  and
Carel P. van Schaik
J. Michael Plavcan
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology University of Arkansas, Fayetteville AR 72701 USA
Carel P. van Schaik
Affiliation:
Anthropologisches Institut University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190 CH-8057, Zurich, Switzerland
W. Scott McGraw
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology Ohio State University, Columbus OH 43210 USA
Diane K. Brockman
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina, Charlotte
Carel P. van Schaik
Affiliation:
Universität Zürich
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Primates live in habitats in which food abundance and other resources fluctuate over time, usually on a seasonal basis, and space. This variation affects the lives of primates in many ways, from behavioral ecology to reproduction (see Chapters 3 and 11). In this chapter, we explore how environmental and behavioral seasonality affect sexual dimorphism.

Sexual dimorphism in body and canine size among primates generally is viewed as primarily a consequence of sexual selection operating through the mechanism of male–male competition for mates (Leutenegger & Kelly 1977; Clutton-Brock et al. 1977; Kay et al. 1988; Plavcan & van Schaik 1992, 1997; Ford 1994; Lindenfors & Tullberg 1998) and modified by female choice for male traits (Plavcan 2004). Sexual dimorphism can be affected by environmental seasonality in two independent ways (see Fig. 14.1): first through the indirect impact of seasonality on the potential for mate monopolization (Mitani et al. 1996a; Nunn 1999; Pereira et al. 2000), and second through the direct impact of seasonality on male and female body size (Albrecht 1978; Turner et al. 1997). In the first case, phenological or climatic seasonality brings about the simultaneous presence of multiple cycling females due to reproductive seasonality and also may favor larger female group size. These effects in turn should affect the number of males present in a group, and patterns of male–male competition and resulting reproductive skew – in other words, several aspects of social organization and the mating system, all of which are tied to sexual dimorphism.

Type
Chapter
Information
Seasonality in Primates
Studies of Living and Extinct Human and Non-Human Primates
 , pp. 401 - 442
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Albrecht, G. H. (1978). The Craniofacial Morphology of the Sulawesi Macaques. Basel: Karger.Google ScholarPubMed
Albrecht, G. H.(1980). Latitudinal, taxonomic, sexual, and insular determinants of size variation in pigtail macaques, Macaca nemestrina. International Journal of Primatology, 1, 141–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albrecht, G. H.(1983). Geographic variation in the skull of the crab-eating macaque, Macaca fascicularis (Primates: Cercopithecidae). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60, 169.Google Scholar
Albrecht, G. H. & Miller, J. M. A. (1993). Geographic variation in primates: a review with implications for interpreting fossils. In Species, Species Concepts, and Primate Evolution, ed. Kimbel, W. H. & Martin, L. B.. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 211–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albrecht, G. H., Jenkins, P. D., & Godfrey, L. R. (1990). Ecogeographic size variation among the living and subfossil prosimians of Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology, 22, 1–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altmann, J. (2000). Models of outcome and process: predicting the number of males in primate groups. In Primate Males, ed. Kappeler, P. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 236–47.Google Scholar
Altmann, S. A. (1959). Field observations on a howling monkey society. Journal of Mammalogy, 40, 317–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altmann, S. A.(1962). A field study of the sociobiology of the rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 102, 338–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersson, M. (1994). Sexual Selection. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Andelman, S. J. (1986). Ecological and social determinants of cercopithecine mating patterns. In Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution: Birds and Mammals, ed. Rubenstein, D. I. & Wrangham, R. W.. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 201–16.Google Scholar
Bennett, E. L. & Davies, A. G. (1994). The ecology of Asian colobines. In Colobine Monkeys, ed. Davies, A. G. & Oates, J. F.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 129–72.Google Scholar
Bennett, E. L. & Sebastian, A. C. (1988). Social organization and ecology of proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) in mixed coastal forest in Sarawak. International Journal of Primatology, 9, 233–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernstein, I. S. (1964). A field study of the activities of howler monkeys. Animal Behavior, 12, 92–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernstein, I. S.(1968). The lutong of Kuala Selangor. Behavior, 32, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, N. H. (1979). Himalayan langurs: temperate colobines. Journal of Human Evolution, 8, 251–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boggess, J. (1976). The social behavior of the Himalayan langur (Presbytis entellus) in Eeastern Nepal. Ph.D. thesis, University of California.
Bolin, I. (1981). Male parental behavior in black howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata pigra) in Belize and Guatemala. Primates, 22, 349–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boonratana, R. (2000). Ranging behavior of proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) in the lower Kinabatangan, Northern Borneo. International Journal of Primatology, 21, 497–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braza, A. A., Alvarez, A., & Azacarte, T. (1981). Behavior of the red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) in the llanos of Venezuela. Primates, 22, 459–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, C. R. (1934). A field study of the behavior and social relations of howling monkeys. Comparative Psychology Monographs, 10, 1–168.Google Scholar
Carpenter, C. R.(1962). Field studies of a primate population. In Roots of Behavior, ed. Bliss, E. L. New York: Harper and Row, pp. 286–94.Google Scholar
Chivers, D. J. (1969). On the daily behavior and spacing of howling monkey groups. Folia Primatologica, 10, 48–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, M. R., Zucker, E. L., & Scott, N. J. (1986). Population trends of the mantled howler groups of La Pacifica, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. American Journal of Primatology, 11, 79–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1975). Feeding behavior of red colobus and black and white colobus in East Africa. Folia Primatologica, 23, 165–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H.(1989). Mammalian mating systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Series B, 236, 339–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H., Harvey, P. H., & Rudder, B. (1977). Sexual dimorphism, socionomic sex ratio and body weight in primates. Nature, 269, 191–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coelho, A. M., Coelho, L. S., Bramblett, C. A., Bramblett, S. S., & Quick, L. B. (1976). Ecology, population characteristics and sympatric associations in primates: a bioenergetic analysis of howler and spider monkeys in Tikal. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 20, 96–135.Google Scholar
Collias, N. & Southwick, C. (1952). A field study of population density and social organization in howling monkeys. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 96, 143–56.Google Scholar
Cords, M. (1984). Mating patterns and social structure in redtail monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius). Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 64, 313–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cords, M.(2000). The number of males in guenon groups. In Primate Males, ed. Kappeler, P. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 84–96.Google Scholar
Crockett, C. M. (1984). Emigration by female red howler monkeys and the case for female competition. In Female Primates: Studies by Female Primatologists, ed. Small, M. F.. New York: Alan R. Liss, pp. 159–73.Google Scholar
Crockett, C. M. & Eisenberg, J. F. (1987). Howlers: variation in group size and demography. In Primate Societies, ed. Smuts, B., Cheney, D., Wrangham, R., & Struhsaker, T. T.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 54–68.Google Scholar
Curtin, R. A. (1975). The socio-ecology of the common langur, Presbytis entellus, in the Nepal Himalaya. Ph.D. thesis, University of California.
Davies, A. G., Oates, J. F., & Dasilva, G. L. (1999). Patterns of frugivory in three West African colobine monkeys. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 327–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Defler, T. R. (1981). The density of Alouatta seniculus in the eastern llanos of Colombia. Primates, 22, 564–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Defler, T. R.(1996). Aspects of the ranging pattern in a group of wild woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha), American Journal of Primatology, 38, 289–302.3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiBietti, M. S., & Janson, C. H. (2000). Reproductive socioecology of tufted capuchins (Cebus apella nigritus) in Northeastern Argentina. International Journal of Primatology, 22, 127–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiFiore, A. & Rodman, P. S. (2001). Time allocation patterns of lowland woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha peoppigii) in a neotropical terra firma forest. International Journal of Primatology, 22, 449–80.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1987). Habitat quality, population dynamics, and group composition in colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza). International Journal of Primatology, 8, 299–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M.(1990). Environmental determinants of intraspecific variation in body weight in baboons (Papio spp.). Journal of Zoology, London, 220, 157–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M.(2000). Male mating strategies: a modeling approach. In Primate Males, ed. Kappeler, P. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 259–68.Google Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. & Dunbar, E. P. (1974). Ecology and population dynamics of Colobus guereza in Ethiopia. Folia Primatologica, 21, 188–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, J. F. (1979). Habitat, economy, and society: some correlations and hypotheses for the Neotropical primates. In Primate Ecology and Human Origins, ed. Bernstein, I. S. & Smith, E. O.. New York: Garland Press, pp. 215–62.Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T. & Oring, T. (1977). Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating systems. Science, 191, 215–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estrada, A. (1982). Survey and census of howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in the rain forest of “Los Tuxtlas” Veracruz, Mexico. American Journal of Primatology, 2, 363–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fashing, P. J. (2001). Feeding ecology of guerezas in the Kakamega Forest Kenya: the importance of Moracaceae fruit in their diet. International Journal of Primatology, 22, 579–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fedigan, L. M., Fedigan, L., & Chapman, C. A. (1985). A census of Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Brenesia, 23, 309–22.Google Scholar
Fishkind, A. S. & Sussman, R. W. (1987). Preliminary survey of the primates of the Zona Protectora and La Selva Biological Station, northeast Costa Rica. Primate Conservation, 8, 63–6.Google Scholar
Fleury, M. & Gautier-Hion, A. (1999). Seminomadic ranging in a population of black colobus (Colobus satanas) in Gabon and its ecological correlates. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 491–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fooden, J. & Albrecht, G. H. (1993). Latitudinal and insular variation of skull size in crab-eating macaques (Primates, Cercopithecidae: Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 92, 521–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, S. M. (1994). Evolution of sexual dimorphism in body weight in platyrrhines. American Journal of Primatology, 34, 221–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freckleton, R. P., Harvey, P. H., & Pagel, M. (2003). Bergmann's rule and body size in mammals. American Naturalist, 161, 821–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freese, C. (1976). Censusing Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus in Costa Rican dry forest. In Neotropical Primates: Field Studies and Conservation, ed. ThoringtonHeltne, R. W. P. G.. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, pp. 4–9.Google Scholar
Galat, G. & Galat-Luong, A. (1976). La colonization de la mangrove par Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus au Senegal. La Terre et Vie, 30, 3–30.Google Scholar
Galat-Luong, A. & Galat, G. (1979). Quelques observations sur l'ecologie de Procolobus badius oustaleti en Empire Centrafrician. Mammalia, 43, 309–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garland, T. Jr, Dickerman, A. W., Janis, C., & Jones, J. A. (1993). Phylogenetic analysis of covariance by computer simulation. Systematic Biology, 42, 265–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garland, T. Jr, Midford, P. E., & Ives, A. R. (1999). An introduction to phylogenetically based statistical methods, with a new method for confidence intervals on ancestral states. American Zoologist, 39, 374–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaulin, S. J. C. & Gaulin, C. K. (1982). Behavioral ecology of Alouatta seniculus in Andean cloud forest. International Journal of Primatology, 3, 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, S. (1978). Primate censusing in northern Colombia: a comparison of two techniques. Primates, 19, 537–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenfield, L. O. (1992). Relative canine size, behavior, and diet in male ceboids. Journal of Human Evolution, 23, 469–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenfield, L. O. & Washburn, A. (1991). Polymorphic aspects of male anthropoid canines. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 84, 17–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groves, C. P. (1973). Notes on the ecology and behavior of the Angola colobus (Colobus angolensis P. L. Sclater 1860) in N.E. Tanzania. Folia Primatologica, 20, 12–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, K. R. L. & Gartlan, J. S. (1965). Ecology and behavior of the vervet monkey, C. aethiops, Lolui Island, Lake Victoria. Proceedings of the Zoological Society, London, 145, 37–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heltne, P. G., Turner, D. C., & Scott, N. J. (1976). Comparison of census data on Alouatta palliata from Costa Rica and Panama. In Neotropical Primates: Field Studies and Conservation, ed. Thorington, R. W. & Heltne, P. G.. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, pp. 10–19.Google Scholar
Henzi, S. P., & Lucas, J. W. (1980). Observations on the inter-troop movement of adult vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Folia Primatologica, 33, 220–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herbinger, I., Boesch, C., & Rothe, H. (2001). Territory characteristics among three neighboring chimpanzee communities in the Tai National Park, Cote d'Ivoire. International Journal of Primatology, 22, 143–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hershkovitz, P. (1977). Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini), Vol. 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Horwich, R. W. (1983). Species status of the black howler monkey, Alouatta pigra, of Belize. Primates, 27, 53–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horwich, R. H. & Johnson, E. D. (1986). Geographical distribution of the black howler (Alouatta pigra) in Central America. Primates, 27, 53–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isbell, L. A. & Pruetz, J. D. (1998). Differences between vervets (Cercopithecus aethiops) and patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) in agonistic interactions between adult females. International Journal of Primatology, 19, 837–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janson, C. H., & Goldsmith, M. L. (1995). Predicting group size in primates: foraging costs and predation risks. Behavioural Ecology, 6, 326–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Julliot, C. (1996). Fruit choice by red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) in a tropical rain forest. American Journal of Primatology, 40, 261–82.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplin, B. A. & Moermond, T. C. (2000). Foraging ecology of the mountain monkey (Cercopithecus l'hoesti): implications for its evolutionary history and use of disturbed forest. American Journal of Primatology, 50, 227–46.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kavanagh, M. (1978). The diet and feeding behavior of Cercopithecus aethiops tantalus. Folia Primatologica, 30, 76–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, R. F., Plavcan, J. M., Glander, K. E., & Wright, P. C. (1988). Sexual selection and canine dimorphism in New World monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 77, 385–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, R. F., Madden, R. H., Schaik, C. & Higdon, D. (1997). Primate species richness is determined by plant productivity: implications for conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 94, 13023–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kool, K. M. (1989). Behavioral ecology of the silver leaf monkey, Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus, in the Pangandaran Nature Reserve, West Java, Indonesia. Ph.D. thesis, University of New South Wales.
Lande, R. (1980). Sexual dimorphism, sexual selection, and adaptation in polygenic characters. Evolution, 33, 292–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leigh, S. R. (1994). Relations between captive and noncaptive weights in anthropoid primates. Zoo Biology, 13, 21–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leigh, S. R., & Shea, B. T. (1995). Ontogeny and the evolution of adult body size dimorphism in apes. American Journal of Primatology, 36, 37–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leigh, S. R. & Terranova, C. J. (1998). Comparative perspectives on bimaturism, ontogeny, and dimorphism in lemurid primates. International Journal of Primatology, 19, 723–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leutenegger, W. & Kelly, J. T. (1977). Relationship of sexual dimorphism in canine size and body size to social, behavioral and ecological correlates in anthropoid primates. Primates, 18, 117–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindenfors, P. (2002). Sexually antagonistic selection on primate size. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 15, 595–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindenfors, P. & Tullberg, B. S. (1998). Phylogenetic analysis of primate size evolution: the consequences of sexual selection. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 64, 413–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maisels, F., Gautier-Hion, A., & Gautier, J. P. (1994). Diets of two sympatric colobines in Zaire: more evidence on seed-eating in forests on poor soils. International Journal of Primatology 15, 681–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marler, P. (1969). Colobus guereza: territoriality and group composition. Science, 163, 93–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, R. D., Willner, L. A., & Dettling, A. (1994). The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in primates. In The Differences Between the Sexes, ed. Short, R. V. & Balaban, E.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 159–200.Google Scholar
McGraw, W. S. (1994). Census, habitat preference and polyspecific associations of six monkeys in the Lomako Forest, Zaire. American Journal of Primatology, 34, 295–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McHenry, H. M. (1992). Body size and proportions in early hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87, 407–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKey, D. B. (1978). Plant chemical defenses and the feeding and ranging behavior of colobus monkeys in African rain forests. Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan.
McKey, D. B. & Watermann, P. G. (1982). Ranging behavior of a group of black colobus (Colobus satanas) in the Douala-Edea Reserve, Cameroon. Folia Primatologica, 39, 264–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milton, K. (1982). Dietary quality and demographic regulation in a howler monkey population. In The Ecology of a Tropical Forest, ed. Leigh, E. G., Rand, A. S., & Windsor, D. M.. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 273–89.Google Scholar
Mitani, J., Gros-Louis, J., & Richards, A. F. (1996a). Number of males in primate groups: comparative tests of competing hypotheses. American Journal of Primatology, 38, 315–32.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitani, J., Gros-Louis, J., & Richards, A. F.(1996b). Sexual dimorphism, the operational sex ratio, and the intensity of male competition in polygynous primates. American Naturalist, 147, 966–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mittermeier, R. A. (1973). Group activity and population dynamics of the howler monkey on Barro Colorado Island. Primates, 14, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mowry, C. B., Decker, B. S., & Shure, D. J. (1996). The role of phytochemistry in dietary choices of Tana River red colobus monkeys (Procolobus badius rufomitratus). International Journal of Primatology, 17, 63–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakagawa, N. (1999). Differential habitat utilization by patas monkeys Erythrocebus patas) and tantalus monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops tantalus) living sympatrically in northern Cameroon. American Journal of Primatology, 49, 243–64.3.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neville, M. K. (1972). The population structure of red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) in Trinidad and Venezuela. Folia Primatologica, 17, 56–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neville, M. K.(1976). The population and conservation of howler monkeys in Venezuela and Trinidad. In Neotropical Primates: Field Studies and Conservation, ed. Thorington, R. W. & Heltne, P. G.. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, pp. 101–9.Google Scholar
Newton, P. N. (1987). The social organization of forest hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). International Journal of Primatology, 8, 199–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nunn, C. L. (1999). The evolution of exaggerated sexual swellings in primates and the graded-signal hypothesis. Animal Behavior, 58, 229–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oates, J. F. (1977). The social life of black and white colobus monkeys, Colobus guereza. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 45, 1–60.Google Scholar
Olupot, W., Chapman, C. A., and Brown, C. H. (1994). Mangabey (Cercocebus albigena) population density, group size and ranging: a 20 year comparison. American Journal of Primatology, 32, 197–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1977). Presbytis entellus, the Hanuman langur. In Primate Conservation, ed. Ranier, H. S. H. Prince & Bourne, G. H.. New York: Academic Press, pp. 469–512.Google Scholar
Palacios, E. & Rodriguez, A. (2001). Ranging pattern and use of space in a group of red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) in a southeastern Colombian rainforest. American Journal of Primatology, 55, 233–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parnell, R. J. (2002). Group size and structure in western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Mbeli Bai, Republic of Congo. American Journal of Primatology, 56, 193–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pereira, M. A., Clutton-Brock, T. H., & Kappeler, P. M. (2000). Understanding male primates. In Primate Males, ed. Kappeler, P. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 271–7.Google Scholar
Plavcan, J. M. (1990). Sexual dimorphism in the dentition of extant anthropoid primates. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, Ann Arbor.
Plavcan, J. M.(1999). Mating systems, intrasexual competition and sexual dimorphism in primates. In Comparative Primate Socioecology, ed. Lee, P. C.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 241–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plavcan, J. M.(2000). Inferring social behavior from sexual dimorphism in the fossil record. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 327–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plavcan, J. M.(2001). Sexual dimorphism in primate evolution. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 44, 25–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plavcan, J. M.(2003). Scaling relationships between craniofacial sexual dimorphism and body mass dimorphism in primates: implications for the fossil record. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 120, 38–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plavcan, J. M.(2004). Sexual selection, measures of sexual selection, and sexual dimorphism in primates. In Sexual Selection in Primates: A Comparative Perspective, ed. Kappeler, P. M. & Schaik, C. P.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 230–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plavcan, J. M. & Schaik, C. P. (1992) Intrasexual competition and canine dimorphism in anthropoid primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87, 461–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plavcan, J. M. & Schaik, C. P.(1997). Intrasexual competition and body weight dimorphism in anthropoid primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 103, 37–68.3.0.CO;2-A>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plavcan, J. M., Schaik, C. P., & Kappeler, P. M. (1995). Competition, coalitions and canine size in primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 28, 245–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, B. (1966). Population characteristics of howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in northern Argentina. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 24, 361–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, B.(1968). Population characteristics. Biblio Primatology, 7, 13–70.Google Scholar
Poulsen, J. R., Clarke, C. J., & Smith, T. B. (2001). Seasonal variation in the feeding ecology of the gray-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena) in Cameroon. American Journal of Primatology, 54, 91–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purvis, A. & Webster, A. J. (1999). Phylogenetically independent comparisons and primate phylogeny. In Comparative Primate Socioecology, ed. Lee, P. C.. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, pp. 44–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ravosa, M. J. (1998). Cranial allometry and geographic variation in slow lorises (Nycticebus). American Journal of Primatology, 45, 225–43.3.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, C., O'Brein, T. G., & Kinnaird, M. E. (1997). Male social behavior and dominance hierarchy in the Sulawesi crested black macaque (Macaca nigra). International Journal of Primatology, 18, 247–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Remis, M. (1997). Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) as seasonal frugivores: use of variable resources. American Journal of Primatology, 43, 87–109.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, M. A. R. (1985). Algunos aspectos sobre comportamiento, alimentacion y nivel de poblacion de los monos (Primates: Cebidae) en el Refugio De Fauna Silvestre Palo Verde (Guanacaste, Costa Rica). In Investigaciones Sobre Fauna Silvestr de Costa Rica. San Jose, Costa Rica: Editorial Universidad Estatal a Distancia, pp. 53–71.Google Scholar
Rose, M. D. (1977). Interspecific play between free ranging guerezas (Colobus guereza) and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aeithiops). Primates, 18, 957–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudran, R. (1979). The demography and social mobility of a red howler (Alouatta seniculus) population in Venezuela. In Vertebrate Ecology in the Northern Neotropics, ed. Eisenberg, J. F.. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 107–26.Google Scholar
Schlicte, H. (1978). A preliminary report on the habitat utilization of a group of howler monkeys (Alouatta villosa pigra) in the National Park of Tikal, Guatemala. In The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores, ed. Montgomery, G. G.. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 551–9.Google Scholar
Siex, K. S. & Struhsaker, T. T. (1999). Ecology of the Zanzibar red colobus monkey: demographic variability and habitat stability. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 163–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silkiluwasha, F. (1981). The distribution and conservation status of the Zanzibar red colobus. African Journal of Ecology, 19, 187–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, S. C., Ostro, L. E. T., Yeager, C. P., & Horwich, R. (1998). Feeding ecology of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) in northern Belize. American Journal of Primatology, 45, 263–79.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmen, B. & Sabatier, D. (1996). Diets of some French Guianan primates: food composition and food choices. International Journal of Primatology, 17, 661–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, C. C. (1977). Feeding behavior of social organization in howling monkeys. In Primate Ecology, ed. Clutton-Brock, T. T.. London: Academic Press, pp. 97–126.Google Scholar
Smith, R. J. (1999). Statistics of sexual size dimorphism. Journal of Human Evolution, 36, 423–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, R. J. & Cheverud, J. M. (2002). Scaling of sexual dimorphism in body mass: a phylogenetic analysis of Rensch's rule in primates. International Journal of Primatology, 23, 1095–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. J. & Jungers, W. L. (1997). Body mass in comparative primatology. Journal of Human Evolution, 32, 523–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Southwick, C. H., Zhang, Y., Jiang, H., Liu, Z., & Qu, W. (1996). Population ecology of rhesus macaques in tropical and temperate habitats. In Evolution and Ecology of Macaque Societies, ed. Fa, J. E. & Lindburg, D. G.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 95–105.Google Scholar
Srivastava, A. & Dunbar, R. I. M. (1996). The mating system of hanuman langurs: a problem in optimal foraging. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 39, 219–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stearns, S. C. & Koella, J. C. (1986). The evolution of phenotypic plasticity in life-history traits: predictions of reaction norms for age and size at maturity. Evolution, 40, 893–915.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevenson, P. (1998). Proximal spacing between individuals in a group of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) in Tinigua National Park, Columbia. International Journal of Primatology, 19, 299–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevenson, P. R. (2000). Seed dispersal by woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) at Tinigua National Park, Colombia: dispersal distance, germination rates, and dispersal quantity. American Journal of Primatology, 50, 275–89.3.0.CO;2-K>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoner, K. E. (1996). Habitat selection and seasonal patterns of mantled howling monkeys (Alonatta palliata) in northeastern Costa Rica. International Journal of Primatology, 17, 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strier, K. B. (2003). Demography and temporal scale of sexual selection. In Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Primates: New Perspectives and Directions, Vol. 3, ed. Jones, C. B.. Norman, OK: The American Society of Primatologists, pp. 45–63.Google Scholar
Struhsaker, T. T. (1975). The Red Colobus Monkey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Struhsaker, T. T. & Leland, L. (1979). Socioecology of five sympatric monkey species in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. In Advances in the Study of Behavior, Vol. 9, ed. Roseblatt, J., Hinde, R. A., Beer, C., & Busnel, M. C.. New York: Academic, pp. 158–228.Google Scholar
Struhsaker, T. T. & Leland, L.(1987). Colobines: infanticide by adult males. In Primate Societies, ed. Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., et al. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 83–97.Google Scholar
Suzuki, A. (1979). The variation and adaptation of social groups of chimpanzees and black and white colobus monkeys. In Primate Ecology and Human Origins, ed. Bernstein, I. S. & Smith, E. O.. New York: Garland STPM Press, pp. 153–73.Google Scholar
Thorington, R. W., Ruiz, J. C., & Eisenberg, J. F. (1984). A study of black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) populations in northern Argentina. American Journal of Primatology, 6, 357–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilson, R. (1977). Social organization of Simakobu monkeys (Nasalis concolor) in Siberut Island, Indonesia. Journal of Mammalogy, 58, 202–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, T. R., Anapol, F., & Jolly, C. J. (1997). Growth, development, and sexual dimorphism in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) at four sites in Kenya. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 103, 19–35.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tutin, C. E. G., Ham, R. M., White, L. J. T., & Harrison, M. J. S. (1997). The primate community of the Lope Reserve, Gabon: diets, responses to fruit scarcity, and effects on biomass. American Journal of Primatology, 42, 1–24.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Schaik, C. P. (2000). Social counterstrategies against male infanticide in primates and other mammals. In Primate Males, ed. Kappeler, P. M.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 34–52.Google Scholar
Vogel, C. (1971). Behavioral differences of Presbytis entellus in two different habitats. In Proceedings of the Third International Congress of Primatology, Zurich 1970, ed. Kummer, H.. Basel: S. Karger, pp. 41–7.Google Scholar
Wallace, R. B., Painter, R. L. E., & Taber, A. B. (1998). Primate diversity, habitat preferences, and population density estimates in Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. American Journal of Primatology, 46, 197–211.3.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watanabe, K. (1981). Variation in group composition and population density of the two sympatric Mentawaian leaf monkeys. Primates, 22, 145–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitten, P. L. (1983). Diet and dominance among female vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). American Journal of Primatology, 5, 139–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, K. (1978). Preliminary report on the completion of the field phase of a study of the social behavior of the silvered leaf monkeys (Presbytis cristata) at Kuala Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of Wildlife and National Parks.Google Scholar
Yamakoshi, G. (1998). Dietary responses to fruit scarcity of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea: possible importance of tool use. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 106, 283–95.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeager, C. P. (1989). Feeding ecology of the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus). International Journal of Primatology, 10, 497–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeager, C. P.(1991). Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) social organization: intergroup patterns of association. American Journal of Primatology, 23, 73–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziegler, T., Hodges, K., Winkler, P., & Hiestermann, M. (2000). Hormonal correlates of reproductive seasonality in wild female Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). American Journal of Primatology, 51, 119–34.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×