Neoliberalism is an approach to politics and economics associated with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and American President Ronald Reagan. From a neoliberal perspective, the welfare state came to be viewed as an economic burden and a threat to personal freedom and liberty. Following the end of the Second World War, government intervention was regarded as essential for successful postwar reconstruction. Neoliberalism is the revival of ideas and arguments initially put forward by economist Adam Smith in the nineteenth century and developed by Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, and Ludwig von Mises, on the central importance of having minimal state intervention in the workings of the economy. The underpinning assumption of neoliberalism is the belief that if the free market is left as unrestricted as possible, society – both individuals and the wider society – will benefit. A central aspect of the neoliberal agenda is the assumption that allowing an unrestricted free market helps to maintain personal freedom and democracy. Consequently, individuals who find themselves in poverty are assumed to have personal failings that prevent them from fully enjoying the benefits that capitalist society has to offer.

What is a ‘problem’?

What motivates students to learn? This is a question frequently asked by policymakers and educators. The desire to learn is framed as a moral issue, enabling learners to become more ‘autonomous’, find a route to personal growth, and become active and democratic citizens. The aspiration to learn is also underpinned by our abilities to update the knowledge base of the labour force to make the country competitive in the knowledge economy. It is commonly assumed that the focus of policymaking and policy research is problem-solving – attempting to find the best possible rational solution to a given social problem. Policy proposals contain an implicit understanding of how a problem is caused, as well as how and why it needs ‘fixing’. A problem needs to be framed and given meaning.

The analysis of education policy presented here is focused on identifying the assumptions and often unexamined ways of thinking about the causes of educational underachievement – how some understanding of causes becomes accepted and comes to shape education policy and discursive practice.