Trafficking of human beings is the movement of people for the purposes of exploitation. In the UK, the primary legislation binds trafficking human beings for the purpose of exploitation to the concept and processes of modern slavery. However, what constitutes modern slavery is not always clear-cut or easy to identify (van der Watt and van der Westhuizen, 2017). Exploitation is a spectrum of harmful abuse to which people are subjected in different contexts (sexual, labour, criminal and so on) and, through this, financial/ material profit or some other gain is secured which is the main goal of all this enterprise. The presence of the other two constitutive elements of trafficking of human beings (THB) as a crime are present too (actions plus means) establishes whether we are concerned with trafficking for the purpose of exploitation, or a form of exploitation that does not include trafficking.

Despite the detail and breadth of academic and clinical knowledge and experience, strategic responses have been confusing and reactive. Recent attempts to formulate typologies of exploitation, such as the UK Home Office ‘A Typology of Modern Slavery Offences in the UK’ (Cooper et al, 2017), the International Labour Organization's Operational Indicators of Human Trafficking in Human Bings (International Labour Organization, 2009) and the UNODC Trafficking Indicators (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), can be distracting and counterproductive.

Within this chapter I will examine the aetiology of exploitation through slavery, servitude, forced labour and other exploitative practices in relation to constructs of organised crime. A concept of the ‘degrees of organisation’ in relation to trafficking and exploitation is presented to describe and explain its presentation and modalities. I will use a series of case studies to illustrate the research evidence that has been cited and the argument that is being made.

I conclude the chapter by establishing the need for a sound concept of exploitation as a mode of abuse, built upon a solid theoretical foundation to take account of, and make better utilisation of, existing resources, measures and remedies.

Conceptualising exploitation

Definitions and categories of exploitative and criminal behaviour are perceived as useful – necessary even – because they provide a structure for exploring motive and victimology.