Chapter 11 explains the supervisory framework under MiCA. Section 11.2 starts with MiCA’s rules for general supervision by national competent authorities (NCAs). Section 11.3 covers EBA’s supervision for significant stablecoins (ARTs/EMTs). Section 11.4 explains MiCA’s product intervention rules, which establish shared supervision between NCAs, the EBA, and the ESMA. Then, Section 11.5 covers MiCA’s extensive system for supervisory cooperation, both among NCAs, between NCAs and EBA, the ESMA, other European authorities, and also with third country authorities. Finally, Section 11.6 explains MiCA’s implementation timeline and implementing measures.

This chapter examines the international legal framework on biodiversity, reflects on the scope of its implementation in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, and highlights the way forward for enhancing coherent, holistic, and integrated implementation of biodiversity treaties in the region. It provides an overview of the status of implementation, primarily through an assessment of the progress of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity including the Aichi targets (2011–2020), under the Convention of Biological Diversity, and assesses the challenges and opportunities of the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. In addition to a literature review, the chapter analyses information from national reports by parties submitted to secretariats to the CBD and on informational platforms such as UNEP’s InforMEA and Law and Environment Assistance Platform.

Whereas the previous chapters of this book focused on how to deliver evidence-based CBTx at the patient level, this chapter seeks to consider and challenge readers on how to design, deliver, and implement CBTx for insomnia scale. It outlines the strengths of different delivery methods of CBT (e.g., individual, group, telehealth, books, and digital) and puts forth the case that digital therapeutics (DTx) can serve as a means of fulfilling clinical guideline care for insomnia at scale. Next, the chapter focuses on how guideline-recommended treatment can be delivered in an efficient manner through a stepped care approach that utilises the variety of delivery methods available. The chapter proceeds to outline a care-delivery model at the ecosystem level to treat the widest possible population, taking into account treatment guidelines and real-world examples such as the role of medication and different care pathways. It goes on to describe how to provide a specialised insomnia service within different clinical services and concludes by highlighting key partnerships and alliances for the future of insomnia CBTx.

Sanctions are intrinsically complex. Implementation of sanctions regulations often entails navigating an extremely dynamic environment consisting of numerous restrictions and prohibitions, difficulties in interpretation, inconsistent measures adopted by imposing jurisdictions and countermeasures. This has been evident following the sanctions against Russia, often described as unprecedented in scale. The more frequent resort to sanctions further means that an increasing number of international contractual relationships are affected. Financial institutions operating globally are particularly impacted. This is exacerbated by the use of secondary sanctions which remain a controversial foreign policy tool and even subject to countermeasures, for example, blocking statutes. Consequently, financial institutions and other economic operators with an international presence, torn between two conflicting regimes, face an unsolvable legal dilemma. This uncertainty extends to the termination of contracts involving persons or activities subject to secondary sanctions. Although in most cases international (financial) contracts contain sanctions clauses (often under force majeure provisions), it remains unclear whether these can be relied on, especially where the institution’s own jurisdiction opposes secondary sanctions. This chapter presents in more detail what are the practical challenges in sanctions implementation. It focuses on financial institutions and provide recommendations on how such challenges could be addressed.

This chapter summarizes the findings from our study, based on the meta-analysis averaging across the effects from the six experiments. We found that increases in locally appropriate community policing practices led to no improvements in citizen–police trust, no greater citizen cooperation with the police, and no reduction in crime. Despite a strong commitment from leadership in each context at the outset, the police implemented the interventions unevenly and incompletely. Although citizens reported more frequent and robust exposure to the police in places where community policing was implemented, we have limited evidence of police action in response to citizen reports.

Chapter 6 develops an integrated framework of leader–subordinate dynamics in Chinese SOEs. How do leaders interact with subordinates to execute their agendas, and how do subordinates respond? Grounded in reward, coercion, and legitimate bases of power, the chapter identifies SOE leader tactics such as leveraging position authority, conducting personnel ploys, emphasizing material and status gains, invoking external threats, underscoring superiors’ directives and policies, and appealing to subordinates’ personal duty and morality. Subordinates may react by praising and supporting the leader or by expressing alternative views, delaying or subverting implementation, shirking, engaging in critical expression, or quitting. Leader–subordinate interactions are iterative and evolve over time.

The chapter highlights the central role national jurisdictions (should) play in the system of international criminal enforcement and addresses the most common legal issues and practical obstacles which may obstruct the pursuit of accountability at the domestic level. The chapter provides an overview of the relevant state practice from the earlier notable precedents to the most recent instances of prosecution and adjudication of core crimes before domestic courts, in particular under the universal jurisdiction. It clarifies the scope of the duties international law imposes on states, including the obligation to extradite or prosecute. The chapter then zeroes in on every principal issue related to the domestic prosecution and adjudication of international crimes, such the need for adequate implementing legislation as well as the extent to which domestic prosecutions may be hindered by the statutes of limitations, the prohibition on retroactive application of penal provisions, and the principle of ne bis in idem (double jeopardy). The chapter’s final section addresses the political and practical obstacles to tackling impunity for international crimes at the domestic level.

In international affairs, legal arguments and political actions shape each other. Unlike in domestic affairs, there is no enforcement authority, and hence there is much debate over how international law affects politics. Many existing approaches do not help us to assess what implementation efforts tell us about a state’s commitment to international law. Some study the effect of law on state behaviour but have a too static understanding of law and state preferences. Others focus on the justificatory discourse that accompanies norm implementation but do not assess individual states’ commitment to contested norms. This chapter studies what a state’s effort to implement a norm tells us about its sense of obligation towards that norm. I propose there are three signposts of obligation in the words and actions that accompany a state’s norm implementation: consistency, publicity, and engagement with the international community. I show that depending on whether the behaviour and discourse of a state displays a strong or weak sense of obligation, we can characterise a state’s norm implementation as exposing weak or strong normative influence or discursive or behavioral norm avoidance. I illustrate these different degrees with cases that involve a variety of different norms and states.

The final substantive chapter of the book looks at how all these rules are implemented and enforced, and what mechanisms exist to hold violators of the law accountable for their acts. Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions requires states to ‘ensure respect’ for the rules of IHL, which is achieved through a range of measures such as education of the armed forces and civil society in the rules of IHL and entrenching the rules in domestic legislation. The chapter describes the roles of the ICRC, Protecting Powers and the International Humanitarian Fact-Finding Commission. The development and content of international criminal law are examined, including individual responsibility for war crimes, lesser violations of IHL, crimes against humanity and genocide, and the concept of command responsibility is explained. The growth in international and hybrid criminal tribunals is noted, as well as the roles played by the United Nations and other organisations in encouraging adherence to the rules of IHL. Finally the chapter examines mechanisms for implementation, enforcement and accountability in non-international armed conflict.