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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2025
Responsive constitutionalism is a theory of constitutionalism that starts from the idea that democracy involves two overlapping commitments — to a relatively thin ‘minimum core’ set of norms and institutions and thicker, more contestable set of rights and deliberative commitments. It then proceeds to affirm a commitment both to legal and political constitutionalism. This article explores the relevance of this theory for Australian constitutionalism and suggests that it in fact has strong resonance with the Australian constitutional tradition. First, the capital ‘C’ Constitution gives strong legal protection to the ‘minimum core’ of democracy in ss 7, 24 and the High Court’s decisions on the implied freedom of political communication and access to the franchise. Second, the small ‘c’ constitution adopts norms that help protect the democratic minimum core and advance a responsive approach to thicker democratic commitments to rights. Third, there are important connections between the idea of responsive constitutionalism and limits on the scope legal constitutionalism and judicial review in Australia. Yet, there are also ways in which a responsive approach points to potential reforms of the Australian constitutional model — to include more robust rights-based constitutional protections, albeit in ways that are premised on a notion of shared legal and political authority and enforcement, and therefore involve a ‘weak-form’ national rights charter or extended principle of legality.
The author thanks Will Bateman, Lynsey Blayden, Lisa Burton Crawford, Brendam Lim, Ashleigh Barnes and Will Partlett for helpful comments on previous versions of the article, and Hayden Clift for outstanding research assistance. The author also thanks the Australian Research Council for research (FT210100667) support. The article is dedicated to Sir Anthony Mason, a great friend, and exemplar of a market responsive approach to constitutionalism and judicial review.
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28. This does not mean that civilian courts cannot engage in responsive forms of judicial review. Indeed, they can. It simply means that the scope and extent to which they can do so may be more limited than for some common law courts, or at least require some degree of institutional adaptation. For a very useful and thoughtful exploration of these questions, see Rosalind Dixon, ‘Responsive Judicial Review in Central & Eastern Europe’ (2023) 48(3–4) Review of Central and East European Law 375 (‘RJR in Europe’); Samo Bardutzky, ‘What Kind of Judicial Review for a Small, Post-Communist European Constitutional Democracy? Thoughts on the Proposal for the Slovenian Constitutional Court to Adopt a Responsive Approach to Judicial Review’ (2023) 48 (3–4) Review of Central and East European Law 403; Ivo Gruev, ‘Responsive Judicial Review in Kelsenian Constitutional Courts: The Impeding Effects of Limited Standing and Formalism’ (2023) 48 (3–4) Review of Central and East European Law 426; David Kosař and Sarah Ouředníčková, ‘Responsive Judicial Review ‘Light’ in Central and Eastern Europe – A New Sheriff in Town?’ (2023) 48 (3–4) Review of Central and East European Law 445; Kriszta Kovács and Gábor Attila Tóth, ‘Constitutional Review as a Democratic Instrument’ (2023) 48 (3–4) Review of Central and East European Law 473; Ivana Krstic, ‘Serbian Constitutional Court – (In)dependent Protector of the Rule of Law and Human Rights?’ (2023) 48 (3–4) Review of Central and East European Law 490; Silvia Suteu, ‘Between Dialogue, Conflict, and Competition: The Limits of Responsive Judicial Review in the Case of the Romanian Constitutional Court’ (2023) 48 (3–4) Review of Central and East European Law 519.
29. Other scholars have argued for the sharing of constitutional authority in the Australian context, including by drawing attention to the important role played by legislative and executive actors in processes of constitutional construction. See, eg, Appleby, Gabrielle, MacDonnell, Vanessa and Synot, Eddie, ‘The Pervasive Constitution: The Constitution outside the Courts’ (2020) 48(4) Federal Law Review 437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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35. Marbury v Madison (1803) 5 US (1 Cranch) 137.
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40. Human Rights Act 1998 (UK) s 4(6) (‘HRA’).
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44. Dixon, Rosalind and Issacharoff, Samuel, ‘Living to Fight Another Day: Judicial Deferral in Defense of Democracy’ (2016) 2016(4) Wisconsin Law Review 683Google Scholar; Dixon, Responsive Judicial Review (n 5).
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47. For discussion, see Stone, More than a Rule Book (n 7).
48. Cf Holden and Dixon (n 45); Dixon, Rosalind, ‘Fair Market Constitutionalism: From Neo-liberal to Democratic Liberal Economic Governance’ (2023) 43(2) Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Nussbaum, Martha C, ‘Political Liberalism and Global Justice’ (2015) 11(1) Journal of Global Ethics 68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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51. See, eg, National Health Act 1953 (Cth); Human Services (Medicare) Act 1973 (Cth); Social Security Act 1991 (Cth). For discussion, see also, William Partlett, ‘Australian Popular Political Constitutionalism’ (2024) Federal Law Review (forthcoming); Will Bateman, ‘Federalising Socialism without Doctrine’ (2024) 52(3) Federal Law Review (forthcoming); Lynsey Blayden, ‘Active Citizens and an Active State: Uncovering the “Positive” Underpinnings of the Australian Constitution’ (2024) Federal Law Review (forthcoming).
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53. See, eg, R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers’ Society of Australia (1956) 94 CLR 254; Melbourne Corporation v The Commonwealth (1947) 74 CLR 31.
54. For discussion of these principles, see eg, Stone, More than a Rule Book (n 7). But for earlier criticism of the claim that these principles can be firmly and directly grounded in constitutional text and structure, see Adrienne Stone, n 14.
55. (2007) 233 CLR 162, 173–4 [6], 182 [24] (Gleeson CJ); 198–201 [82]–[91] (Gummow, Kirby and Crennan JJ).
56. Ibid 174–5 [8] (Gleeson CJ).
57. Ibid 198–9 [82]–[83], [85] (Gummow, Kirby and Crennan JJ).
58. (2010) 243 CLR 1, 34–7 [72]–[73] (French CJ); 61 [167] (Gummow and Bell JJ); 120–1 [384] (Crennan J).
59. Ibid 19–21 [22]–[25] (French CJ); 48 [121] (Gummow and Bell JJ); 107 [328]–[330] (Crennan J). Cf 77 [225] (Hayne J); 99–100 [301]–[304] (Heydon J).
60. ACTV (n 9); Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520 (‘Lange’).
61. Ibid; Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR 1.
62. McCloy v New South Wales (2015) 257 CLR 178 (‘McLoy’). See discussion in Wesson, Murray, ‘The Reception of Structured Proportionality in Australian Constitutional Law’ (2021) 49(3) Federal Law Review 352CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chordia, Shipra, Proportionality in Australian Constitutional Law (Federation Press, 2020)Google Scholar; Carter, Anne, Proportionality and Facts in Constitutional Adjudication (Hart Publishing, 2022).Google Scholar
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64. See McCloy (n 61); Unions NSW v New South Wales (2013) 252 CLR 530; Unions NSW v New South Wales (2019) 264 CLR 595 (‘Unions II’). For a useful discussion of Unions II, see Wesson, Murray, ‘Unions NSW v New South Wales [No 2]’: Unresolved Issues for the Implied Freedom of Political Communication’ (2019) 23(1) Media and Arts Law Review 93.Google Scholar
65. Dixon, ‘Calibrated Proportionality’ (n 62).
66. Ibid.
67. Dixon, Responsive Judicial Review (n 5).
68. Ibid.
69. ACTV (n 9).
70. See, eg, David Crowe and Paul Sakkal, ‘Billionaires Pour Money into Political Parties, Donations Data Reveals’, The Sydney Morning Herald (online, 1 February 2023) <https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/billionaires-pour-money-into-political-parties-donations-data-reveals-20230201-p5ch0j.html>.
71. This is one reason both I and other scholars have suggested that courts should combine remedies of this kind with a strong judicially defined default position, designed to encourage a legislative response: see Dixon, Responsive Judicial Review (n 5); Landau, David, ‘Aggressive Weak-Form Remedies’ (2013) 5(1) Constitutional Court Review 244CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Po Jen Yap, ‘New Democracies and Novel Remedies’ (2017) (January) Public Law 30. See also Rosalind Dixon and Po Jen Yap, ‘Responsive Judicial Remedies’ (2024) Global Constitutionalism (forthcoming).
72. Dixon, Responsive Judicial Review (n 5). See also McAdam, Richard, The Expressive Powers of Law: Theories and Limits (Harvard University Press, 2017).Google Scholar
73. A remedy of this kind was issued three months earlier in Canada by the Supreme Court of Canada in Schachter v Canada [1992] 2 SCR 679 (decided 9 July 1992), compared to ACTV (n 9) (decided 30 September 1992).
74. Dixon and Yap, ‘Responsive Judicial Remedies’ (n 70).
75. Cf Loughland, ‘Taking Process-based Theory Seriously’ (n 8).
76. Roberts v Bass (2002) 212 CLR 1.
77. Coco v The Queen (1994) 179 CLR 427 (‘Coco’).
78. (1992) 177 CLR 292.
79. Leeth v The Queen (1992) 110 ALR 459 (‘Leeth’).
80. (1998) 195 CLR 337.
81. Leeth (n80). For further discussion, see Dixon, Responsive Judicial Review (n 5) 116.
82. See Secretary of the Department of Health and Community Services v JWB (1992) 175 CLR 218 (‘Marion’s Case’). In that case, the Mason Court seemed to suggest that the common law in Australia might go further than English law (at least prior to the Human Rights Act) and develop so as to recognize a broader common law right to dignity, but that suggestion has not been developed in subsequent cases, so that (for now at least) Marion’s Case stands as a relatively isolated example of common law, judicial rights protection for the right to dignity in Australia. See, eg, Australian Broadcasting Corporation v Lenah Meats Pty Ltd (2001) 208 CLR 199.
83. On administrative law, see, eg, Boughey, Janina, Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada The Newest Despotism? (Bloomsbury, 2019).Google Scholar
84. See, eg, Clubb v Edwards (2019) 267 CLR 171, and discussion in Scott Stephenson, ‘Dignity and the Australian Constitution’ (2020) 42(4) Sydney Law Review 369 (‘Dignity’). See also Barnes, Ashleigh, ‘Constitutional Dignity’ (2023) 46(3) Melbourne University Law Review 683.Google Scholar
85. On the gaps in current human rights protection in Australia, see also Australian Human Rights Commission, ‘Free & Equal’ (n 2) 46. On how these principles play out in the context of the potential indefinite detention of non-citizens, see Dixon, ‘The New Responsive Constitutionalism’ (n 5), and also NZYQ v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship and Multicultural Affairs (2023) 97 ALJR 1005 (relying on Chapter III principles rather than statutory interpretation as a means of limiting arbitrary detention in these circumstances).
86. (2022) 404 ALR 182 (‘Garlett’).
87. Section 26 of the High Risk Serious Offenders Act 2020 (WA) provides for the making of an order for the ‘control, care, or treatment’ of an offender, but in the context of their ‘continuing detention … in custody’.
88. Tamara Tulich and Sarah Murray, ‘Confronting Race, Chapter III and Preventive (In)justice: Garlett v Western Australia’, Australian Public Law (Blog Post, 4 November 2022) <https://www.auspublaw.org/blog/2022/11/confronting-race-chapter-iii-and-preventive-injustice-garlett-v-western-australia>. For the consideration of the issue, see discussion in Garlett (n 87) 950–1 [273]–[276] (Edelman J).
89. See DLA Piper, Review of the Severe Substance Dependence Treatment Act 2014 (Vic) (Report, vol 2, 2013) <https://www.health.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/migrated/files/collections/research-and-reports/f/final-report-on-review-of-ssdta-vol-2-pdf.pdf>.
90. See ibid. See also Magistrate Jennifer Bowles, ‘Why Can I Lock Kids Up but I Can’t Ensure They Receive Treatment?’, University of Queensland (Blog Post, 12 February 2021) <https://stories.uq.edu.au/policy-futures/2021/the-case-for-effective-mandated-substance-abuse-treatment-for-young-people/index.html>.
91. Tulich and Murray (n 89).
92. Garlett (n 87) 196–8 [57]–[65] (Kiefel CJ, Keane and Steward JJ); 207 [107] (Gageler J).
93. For discussion of this issue, see, eg, ibid 250–1 [273]–[277] (Edelman J); Tulich and Murray (n 89).
94. Garlett (n 87) 217–8 [153]–[160], 221–32 (Gordon J).
95. Ibid 207 [107] (Kiefel CJ, Keane and Steward JJ), 252 [281] (Edelman J), 260–1 [314] (Gleeson J).
96. Alicia Bridges, ‘High Court Decision on WA Law that Allows Indefinite Detention for ‘Serious Offenders’ Shocks Human Rights Lawyers’, ABC News (online, 7 Sep 2022) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-09-07/high-court-denies-challenge-to-serious-offenders-act/101416110>.
97. Garlett (n 87) 252–3 [282] (Edelman J).
98. Momcilovic v The Queen (2011) 245 CLR 1, 93 [175] (Gummow J) (suggesting that references to dialogue are ‘apt to mislead’), 207 [534] (Crennan and Kiefel JJ) (labelling the metaphor an ‘inappropriate description of the relations between the Parliament and the courts’).
99. See, eg, Dixon, Rosalind, ‘Creating Dialogue about Socioeconomic Rights: Strong-Form versus Weak-Form Judicial Review Revisited’ (2007) 5(3) International Journal of Constitutional Law 391CrossRefGoogle Scholar (‘Creating Dialogue’); Roach, Kent, ‘Dialogic Remedies’ (2019) 17(3) International Journal of Constitutional Law 860CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Friedman, Barry, ‘Dialogue and Judicial Review’ (1993) 91(4) Michigan Law Review 557CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Po Jen Yap, ‘Defending Dialogue’ [2012] Public Law 527; Po Jen Yap, ‘Dialogue and Subconstitutional Doctrines in Common Law Asia’ [2013] Public Law 779.
100. For an illuminating exploration of the principle in Australia, see Meagher, Dan, ‘The Modern Approach to Statutory Interpretation and the Principle of Legality: An Issue of Coherence?’ (2018) 46(3) Federal Law Review 397CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chen, Bruce, ‘The Principle of Legality: Issues of Rationale and Application’ (2015) 41(2) Monash University Law Review 329.Google Scholar
101. Momcilovic (n 99).
102. Ibid. For an earlier discussion of where this line lies, see Spigelman, JJ, ‘The Principle of Legality and the Clear Statement Principle’ (2005) 79(12) Australian Law Journal 769.Google Scholar
103. Lim, ‘Normativity’ (n 3).
104. Ibid 386–8.
105. (1908) 7 CLR 277.
106. (1990) 171 CLR 1.
107. (2001) 204 CLR 290.
108. Lim (n 3) 389–94. For a powerful defence of this understanding, see French, Robert, ‘The Principle of Legality and Legislative Intention’ (2019) 40(1) Public Law Journal 40.Google Scholar
109. (1994) 179 CLR 427.
110. For the suggestion that the Court adopts a varied approach in practice, see, eg, Cardell-Oliver, Francis, ‘Parliament, the Judiciary and Fundamental Rights: The Strength of the Principle of Legality’ (2017) 41(1) Melbourne University Law Review 30.Google Scholar
111. See, eg, Meagher, Dan, ‘The Principle of Legality as Clear Statement Rule: Significance and Problems’ (2014) 36(3) Sydney Law Review 413.Google Scholar
112. Ibid.
113. See Crawford, Lisa Burton, ‘An Institutional Justification for the Principle of Legality Lending Exceptions’ (2022) 45(2) Melbourne University Law Review 511Google Scholar (‘Institutional Justification’).
114. See Lisa Burton Crawford, ‘The Institutional Justification for the Principle of Legality, Revisited’ (2024) Melbourne University Law Review (forthcoming).
115. Lim (n 3) 409–12. For a useful exploration of this same issue, albeit one that ultimately argues against the application of the principle to statutory rights, see Chen, Bruce, ‘The Principle of Legality: Protecting Statutory Rights from Statutory Infringement?’ (2019) 41(1) Sydney Law Review 73.Google Scholar
116. For a helpful exploration of this intersection, see Meagher, Dan, ‘The Common Law Principle of Legality in the Age of Rights’ (2013) 38(4) Alternative Law Journal 209CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also, Coecke, Alison, ‘The Principle of Legality as Protection for Human Rights’ (2014) 39(4) Alternative Law Journal 249Google Scholar; Murphy (n 6).
117. Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562, 581–94 [33]–[73] (McHugh J). For the recent reconsideration of reversal of the Al Kateb decision, see Transcript of Proceedings, NZYQ v Minister of Immigration Citizenship and Multicultural Affairs & Anor [2023] HCATrans, 154.
118. See Australian Human Rights Commission, ‘Free & Equal’ (n 2) 107–8.
119. This is one answer to the argument that democracy-enhancing accounts of the principle are not sufficiently context-sensitive: see Burton Crawford, ‘Institutional Justification’ (n 114) 519–20.
120. Lim (n 3) 403.
121. Ibid. Cf also Loughland, ‘Taking Process-based Theory Seriously’ (n 8) (making a similar argument drawing even more explicitly on Elyian ideas about the democratic argument for the judicial protection of ‘discrete and insular’ minorities, but in the context of construing capital C constitutional guarantees).
122. Australian Human Rights Commission, ‘Free & Equal’ (n 2) 22.
123. On the importance of this kind of consideration of ‘fit’, see Murphy (n 6) 26.
124. Burton Crawford, ‘Institutional Justification’ (n 114) 513.
125. Ibid 522.
126. For the idea that the principle should focus on ‘structural principles and systemic values’, see Murphy (n 6) 27. On the scope and content of Australian constitutional values in this context, see, eg, Dixon, Rosalind, Australian Constitutional Values (Hart Publishing, 2018).CrossRefGoogle Scholar On dignity, see also Stephenson (85); Barnes (n 85).
127. Dixon, Responsive Judicial Review (n 5).
128. See Dixon, Rosalind, ‘The Functional Constitution: Re-reading the 2014 High Court Constitutional Term’ (2015) 43(3) Federal Law Review 455CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dixon, Australian Constitutional Values (n 127). Cf Dixon, ‘RJR in Europe’ (n 28).
129. Murphy (n 6).
130. Coco (n 78).
131. Burton Crawford, ‘Institutional Justification’ (n 114) 521–2.
132. R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex parte Simms [2000] 2 AC 115, 131 (Lord Steyn).
133. Lim, ‘Normativity’ (n 3) 392–3, citing Plaintiff S157/2002 v Commonwealth (2003) 211 CLR 476, 492 [30] (Gleeson CJ); Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562, 577 [19] (Gleeson CJ); K-Generation Pty Ltd v Liquor Licensing Court (2009) 237 CLR 501, 520 [47] (French CJ); Attorney-General (South Australia) v Corporation of the City of Adelaide (2013) 249 CLR 1, 66 [148] (Heydon J); Lee v New South Wales Crime Commission (2013) 251 CLR 196, 310 [313] (Gageler and Keane JJ).
134. Waldron, ‘Core of the Case’ (n 14). But for criticism, see Dixon, Rosalind and Stone, Adrienne, ‘The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective’ in Dixon, Rosalind and Stone, Adrienne (eds), The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge University Press, 2018) 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roux, Theunis, ‘In Defence of Empirical Entanglement: The Methodological Flaw in Waldron’s Case against Judicial Review’ in Levy, Ron et al (eds), Defensive Constitutionalism (Cambridge University Press, 2018) 203Google Scholar; Issacharoff, Samuel, ‘Judicial Review in Troubled Times: Stabilizing Democracy as a Second-Best World’ (2019) 98(1) North Carolina Law Review 1.Google Scholar
135. See Dixon, Responsive Judicial Review (n 5).
136. I am indebted to Brendan Lim for pressing me on this point. He and Gabrielle Appleby make a similar point about a functionalist approach to constitutional construction: see, eg, Lim, Brendan, ‘The Convergence of Form and Function: Commentary on Dixon’ (2015) 43(3) Federal Law Review 505CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Appleby, Gabrielle, ‘Functionalism in Constitutional Interpretation: Factual and Participatory Challenges’ (2015) 43(3) Federal Law Review 493CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dixon, Rosalind, ‘Response to Commentators’ (2015) 43(3) Federal Law Review 517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
137. See ibid. Gageler, Stephen, ‘Judicial Legitimacy’ (2023) 97(1) Australian Law Journal 28Google Scholar; Dixon and Loughland (n 8); Loughland, ‘Taking Process-based Theory Seriously’ (n 8).