Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-4ks9w Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-13T12:06:07.960Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

How and Why Armed Groups Participate in Elections

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 August 2018

Aila M. Matanock  and
Paul Staniland
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Armed actors are often involved in electoral politics, from the fusing of ballots and bullets in armed political parties to insurgents covertly backing politicians. We develop new concepts and theory to better understand these complex relationships between violent actors and democratic practice. We first offer a novel conceptualization of armed groups’ electoral strategies that systematically maps out variation in the organizational directness and public openness of groups’ involvement in elections. We then use comparative case studies to develop theory about the conditions under which each of these electoral strategies is most likely, and what can trigger changes between them. The interaction of armed groups’ power and expectations of popular support with governments’ policies of toleration or repression determines the strategies of electoral participation that groups pursue. These concepts and arguments lay the foundation for a systematic research agenda on when and how “normal” and armed politics become intertwined.

Type
Special Section: The Persistence of Authoritarianism
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 16 , Issue 3 , September 2018 , pp. 710 - 727
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

The authors thank Sarah Daly, Ursula Daxecker, Reyko Huang, John Ishiyama, Peter Krause, Ben Lessing, Katerina Linos, Alison Post, Abbey Steele, Forrest Stuart, four excellent and demanding anonymous reviewers, the editors of Perspectives on Politics, and the participants at the 2016 APSA Annual Meeting, 2016 Peace Science Society Conference, 2017 International Studies Association Annual Convention, and 2017 Neubauer Collegium for Culture and Society for invaluable comments.

References

Acemoglu, Daron, Robinson, James A., and Santos, Rafael J.. 2009. “The Monopoly of Violence: Evidence from Colombia.”. NBER Working Paper No. 15578. Cambridge, MA National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
Arjona, Ana. 2016. Rebelocracy: Social Order in the Colombian Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arriola, Leonardo. 2011. “Election Violence in Democratizing States.” Presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, September 1–4.Google Scholar
Baruah, Sanjib. 2005. Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Beaulieu, Emily. 2014. Electoral Protest and Democracy in the Developing World. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bekoe, Dorina Akosua Oduraa. 2012. Voting in Fear: Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
Bellows, John and Miguel, Edward. 2009. “War and Local Collective Action in Sierra Leone.” Journal of Public Economics 93: 1144–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Eli and Laitin, David D.. 2008. “Religion, Terrorism and Public Goods: Testing the Club Model.” Journal of Public Economics 92: 1942–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Eli and Matanock, Aila M.. 2015. “The Empiricists’ Insurgency.” Annual Review of Political Science 18(1): 443–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhasin, Tavishi and Hallward, Maia Carter. 2013. “Hamas as a Political Party: Democratization in the Palestinian Territories.” Terrorism and Political Violence 25(1): 75–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhatnagar, Gaurav Vivek. 2015. “Confessions from Bihar’s Killing Fields set to Singe BJP, and Nitish Too.” The Wire. Available at https://thewire.in/8661/confessions-from-bihars-killing-fields-set-to-singe-bjp-and-nitish-too/.Google Scholar
Bhaumik, Subir. 2009. Troubled Periphery: Crisis of India’s North East. Los Angeles: SAGE.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhonsle, Anubha. 2016. Mother, Where’s My Country? Looking for Light in the Dakrness of Manipur. Delhi: Speaking Tiger Limited.Google Scholar
Blainey, Geoffrey. 1988. Causes of War. New York: Simon and Schuster.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, Graeme and Imai, Kosuke. 2012. “Statistical Analysis of List Experiments.” Political Analysis 20(1): 47–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, Graeme, Imai, Kosuke, and Lyall, Jason. 2014. “Comparing and Combining List and Endorsement Experiments: Evidence from Afghanistan.” American Journal of Political Science 58(4): 1043–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blattman, Christopher. 2009. “From Violence to Voting: War and Political Participation in Uganda.” American Political Science Review 103(2): 231–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borzyskowski, Inken von and Kuhn, Patrick M.. 2014. “Dangerously Informed: Christian Missionaries, Information, and Pre-Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Presented at the Empirical Studies of Conflict Annual Research Meeting, San Diego, CA, May 29–30.Google Scholar
Bosworth, R. J. B. 2011. Mussolini. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar
Boudreau, Vincent. 2004. Resisting Dictatorship: Repression and Protest in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourn, J. B. 1975. “Provisional Sinn Fein.” In Paramilitaries: Legal, Policy and Practical Consequences of De-proscription of Ulster Volunteer Force and Sinn Fein. vol. 1974 May 07–1974 Jun 17. Kew, UK: The National Archives. 2.Google Scholar
Brady, Henry E. and Collier, David, eds. 2004. Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Brancati, Dawn and Snyder, Jack. 2011. “Rushing to the Polls: The Causes of Premature Postconflict Elections.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 55(3): 469–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brancati, Dawn and Snyder, Jack. 2013. “Time to Kill: The Impact of Election Timing and Sequencing on Post-Conflict Stability.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 57(5): 822–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brass, Paul R. 1997. Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Brathwaite, Robert. 2013. “The Electoral Terrorist: Terror Groups and Democratic Participation.” Terrorism and Political Violence 25(1): 53–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burch, Jonathan and Salahuddin, Syed. 2010. “Taliban Urge Afghan Vote Boycott, Warn of Violence.” Reuters, September 16.Google Scholar
Buxton, P. W. J. 1978. “Proscription of Provisional Sinn Fein (PSF) and Others.” Provisional Sinn Fein (PSF): discussion of possible proscription. 1977 Jan 01–1978 Dec 31. Kew, UK: The National Archives. 2.Google Scholar
Carson, Austin. 2017. “Hidden in Plain Sight: Escalation Control and the Covert Side of the Vietnam War.” Working Paper. Department of Political Science, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Hug, Simon, and Krebs, Lutz F.. 2010. “Democratization and Civil War: Empirical Evidence.” Journal of Peace Research 47(4): 377–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cepeda Castro, Iván. 2006. “Genocidio Político: El Caso De La Unión Patriótica En Colombia.“ Available at http://www.desaparecidos.org/colombia/fmcepeda/genocidio-up/cepeda.html.Google Scholar
Chandraprema, Candauda. 1991. Sri Lanka, the Years of Terror: The JVP Insurrection, 1987–1989. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Lake House Bookshop.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, Hoeffler, Anke, and Söderbom, Måns. 2008. “Post-Conflict Risks.” Journal of Peace Research 45(4): 461–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Constable, Pamela. 2017. “In Pakistan, Once-Fringe Islamist Radicals Are Making Their Way Into Mainstream politics.” Washington Post, September 24.Google Scholar
Corstange, Daniel. 2009. “Sensitive Questions, Truthful Answers? Modeling the List Experiment with Listit.” Political Analysis 17(1): 45–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, Sarah Zukerman. 2016. Organized Violence after Civil War: The Geography of Recruitment in Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Das Gupta, Barun. 2000. “NLFT intimidated voters in Tripura: Sarkar.” The Hindu. Available at http://www.thehindu.com/2000/05/13/stories/0413224l.htm.Google Scholar
Davenport, Christian. 2007. State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daxecker, Ursula E. 2012. “The Cost of Exposing Cheating: International Election Monitoring, Fraud, and Post-Election Violence in Africa.” Journal of Peace Research 49(4): 503–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daxecker, Ursula E. 2014. “All Quiet on Election Day? International Election Observation and Incentives for Pre-Election Violence in African Elections.” Electoral Studies 34: 232–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diehl, James. 1977. Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Dudley, Steven S. 2004. Walking Ghosts: Murder and Guerrilla Politics in Colombia. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dunning, Thad. 2011. “Fighting and Voting: Violent Conflict and Electoral Politics.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 55(3): 327–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durant, T. Clark and Michael, Weintraub. 2014. “How to Make Democracy Self-Enforcing after Civil War: Enabling Credible yet Adaptable Elite Pacts.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 31(5): 521–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaton, Kent. 2006. “The Downside of Decentralization: Armed Clientelism in Colombia.” Security Studies 15(4): 533–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
English, Richard. 2004. Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Express Tribune. 2015. “Shahbaz Wanted to Cut Deal with TTP as Long as They Didn’t Conduct Operations in Punjab: Report.” Available at https://tribune.com.pk/story/850789/shahbaz-wanted-to-cut-deal-with-ttp-as-long-they-didnt-conduct-operations-in-punjab-report/.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D. 2007. “Fighting Rather Than Bargaining.” Presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL, August 30–September 2.Google Scholar
Flores, Thomas Edward and Nooruddin, Irfan. 2009. “Democracy under the Gun: Understanding Postconflict Economic Recovery.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 53(1): 3–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flores, Thomas Edward and Nooruddin, Irfan. 2012. “The Effect of Elections on Post-Conflict Peace and Reconstruction.” Journal of Politics 74(2): 558–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fortna, Virginia Page and Huang, Reyko. 2012. “Democratization after Civil War: A Brush-Clearing Exercise.” International Studies Quarterly 56(4):801–08.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fumerton, Mario and Van Wilgenburg, Wladimir. 2015. “Kurdistan’s Political Armies: The Challenge of Unifying the Peshmerga Forces.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.” Available at http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/12/16/kurdistan-s-political-armies-challenge-of-unifying-peshmerga-forces-pub-61917.Google Scholar
Gayer, Laurent. 2014. Karachi: Ordered Disorder and the Struggle for the City. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
George, Alexander L. and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Giraldo, Fernando. 2001. Democracia y Discurso Político en la Unión Patriótica. Bogotá, Colombia: Centro Editorial Javeriano (CEJA).Google Scholar
Glynn, Adam N. 2013. “What Can We Learn with Statistical Truth Serum? Design and Analysis of the List Experiment.” Public Opinion Quarterly 77(1): 159–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guardian. 2013. “Pakistani Taliban Target ANP Leaders during Election Campaign.” Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/14/pakistani-taliban-target-anp-leaders.Google Scholar
Gunaratna, Rohan. 1990. Sri Lanka, a Lost Revolution? The Inside Story of the JVP. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Institute of Fundamental Studies.Google Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie M., Hyde, Susan D., and Jablonski, Ryan S.. 2014. “When Do Governments Resort to Election Violence?” British Journal of Political Science 44(1): 149–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie M., Hyde, Susan D., and Jablonski, Ryan S.. 2018. “Surviving Elections: Election Violence, Incumbent Victory and Post-Election Repercussions.” British Journal of Political Science 48(2): 459–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidar, Suhasini. 2015. “Ex-RAW Chief: Vajpayee govt. suspected Mehbooba of HM links.” The Hindu. Available at http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/vajpayee-government-suspected-pdp-leader-mehbooba-mufti-of-having-links-with-hizbul-mujahideen-exraw-chief/article7379714.ece.Google Scholar
Hartzell, Caroline and Hoddie, Matthew. 2015. “The Art of the Possible: Power Sharing and Post-Civil War Democracy.” World Politics 67: 37–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heger, Lindsay L. 2015. “Votes and Violence: Pursuing Terrorism While Navigating Politics.” Journal of Peace Research 52: 32–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidalgo, Daniel and Lessing, Benjamin. 2016. “Endogenous State Weakness: Paramilitaries and Electoral Politics.” Working Paper. Department of Political Science, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Höglund, Kristine. 2009. “Electoral Violence in Conflict-Ridden Societies: Concepts, Causes, and Consequences.” Terrorism and Political Violence 21(3): 412–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holbrook, Allyson L. and Krosnick, Jon A.. 2010. “Social Desirability Bias in Voter Turnout Reports: Tests Using the Item Count Technique.” Public Opinion Quarterly 74(1): 37–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, Reyko. 2016. The Wartime Origins of Democratization: Civil War, Rebel Governance, and Political Regimes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke. 2011. “Multivariate Regression Analysis for the Item Count Technique.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 106(494): 407–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2011. “The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks.” Asia Report No. 202, February 14. Available at https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/philippines/communist-insurgency-philippines-tactics-and-talks.Google Scholar
Jha, R. K. 1995. “At Breaking Point.” India Today. Avaialble at http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/in-manipur-mired-in-corruption-and-violence-elections-invite-little-enthusiasm/1/288350.htmlGoogle Scholar
Jones, Philip. 2003. The Pakistan People’s Party: Rise to Power. Karachi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kaplan, Morgan. 2016. “How Civilian Perceptions Affects Patterns of Violence and Competition in Multi-Party Insurgencies.” Unpublished manuscript, Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Kelley, Judith G. 2012. Monitoring Democracy: When International Election Observation Works, and Why It Often Fails. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Khan, M. Ilyas. 2013. “Pakistan election: Taliban threats hamper secular campaign.” BBC. Available at http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-22022951.Google Scholar
Krause, Peter. 2017. Rebel Power: Why National Movements Compete, Fight, and Win. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krause, Peter and Eiran, Ehud Udi. 2018. “How Human Boundaries Become State Borders: Radical Flanks and Territorial Control in the Modern Era.” Comparative Politics 50(4): forthcoming.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, Ashwani. 2008. Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar. New Delhi: Anthem Press.Google Scholar
Kydd, Andrew and Walter, Barbara. 2006. “The Strategies of Terrorism.” International Security, 31(1): 49–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lessing, Benjamin. 2015. “Logics of Violence in Criminal War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59(8): 1486–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven and Way, Lucan A.. 2002. “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism.” Journal of Democracy 13(2): 51–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven and Way, Lucan A.. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Licklider, Roy. 2006. “Democracy and the Renewal of Civil Wars.” In Approaches, Levels and Methods of Analysis in International Politics: Crossing Boundaries, ed. Starr, Harvey. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Lyons, Terrence. 2005. Demilitarizing Politics: Elections on the Uncertain Road to Peace. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Lyons, Terrence. 2016. “The Importance of Winning: Victorious Insurgent Groups and Authoritarian Politics.” Comparative Politics 48(2): 167–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, Michael. 2004. Fascists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, Carrie. 2008. The Making of Democrats: Elections and Party Development in Postwar Bosnia, El Salvador, and Mozambique. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, Carrie and Smith, Ian. 2016. “Political Party Formation by Former Armed Opposition Groups after Civil War.” Democratization 23(6): 972–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansfield, Edward D. and Snyder, Jack. 2005. Electing to Fight: Why Emerging Democracies Go to War. Boston: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Marshall, Michael Christopher and Ishiyama, John. 2016. “Does Political Inclusion of Rebel Parties Promote Peace after Civil Conflict?” Democratization 23(6): 1009–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. 2012. “International Insurance: Why Militant Groups and Governments Compete with Ballots Instead of Bullets.” PhD diss., Stanford University.Google Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. 2016. “Using Violence, Seeking Votes.” Journal of Peace Research 53(6): 845–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. 2017a. “Bullets for Ballots.” International Security 41(4): 93–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. 2017b. Electing Peace: From Civil Conflict to Political Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. and Dow, David A.. 2017. “Candidates and Combatants: Why Do Simultaneous Electoral and Armed Campaigns Occur?” Working Paper. Department of Political Science, University of California-Berkeley.Google Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. and Garbiras-Díaz, Natalia. 2018. “Considering Concessions: A Survey Experiment on the Colombian Peace Process.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 35(5):.Google Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. and García-Sánchez, Miguel. 2018. “Does Counterinsurgent Success Match Social Support? Evidence from a Survey Experiment in Colombia.” Journal of Politics 80(3): .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matanock, Aila M., Garbiras-Díaz, Natalia, García-Sánchez, Miguel. 2018. “Elite Cues in Post-Conflict Contexts.” Working Paper. Department of Political Science, University of California-Berkeley.Google Scholar
Matanock, Aila M. and García-Sánchez, Miguel. 2017. “The Colombian Paradox: Peace Processes, Elite Divisions & Popular Plebiscites.” Daedalus 146(4):152–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdam, Doug and Tarrow, Sidney. 2010. “Ballots and Barricades: On the Reciprocal Relationship between Elections and Social Movements.” Perspectives on Politics 8(2): 529–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCargo, Duncan. 2006. “Thaksin and the Resurgence of Violence in the Thai South: Network Monarchy Strikes Back?” Critical Asian Studies 38(1): 39–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McVeigh, R. 2009. The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics. Social Movements, Protest, and Contention series, vol. 32. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Mobrand, E., 2016. “The Street Leaders of Seoul and the Foundations of the South Korean Political Order.” Modern Asian Studies 50(2): 636–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasr, S. V. R. 2000. “The Rise of Sunni Militancy in Pakistan: The Changing Role of Islamism and the Ulama in Society and Politics.” Modern Asian Studies 34(1): 139–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, Pippa and Grömping, Max. 2017. “Populist Threats to Electoral Integrity: The Year in Elections, 2016–2017.” The Electoral Integrity Project. Available at https://www.electoralintegrityproject.com/international-blogs/2017/5/16/populist-threats-to-electoral-integrity.Google Scholar
Norton, Augustus. 2007. “The Role of Hezbollah in Lebanese Domestic Politics.” The International Spectator 42(4): 475–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ottaway, Marina. 2005. “Islamists and Democracy: Keep the Faith.” New Republic, June 6.Google Scholar
Paris, Roland. 2004. At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedahzur, Ami and Weinberg, Leonard. 2003. Political Parties and Terrorist Groups. London; New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Powell, Robert. 2006. “War as a Commitment Problem.” International Organization 60(1): 169–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Przeworski, Adam. 1991. Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reilly, Benjamin and Nordlund, Per. 2008. Political Parties in Conflict-Prone Societies: Regulation, Engineering and Democratic Development. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.Google Scholar
Reno, William. 2011. Warfare in Independent Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roessler, Philip G. 2005. “Donor-Induced Democratization and the Privatization of State Violence in Kenya and Rwanda.” Comparative Politics 37(2): 207–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenfeld, Bryn, Imai, Kosuke, and Shapiro, Jacob N.. 2015. “An Empirical Validation Study of Popular Survey Methodologies for Sensitive Questions.” American Journal of Political Science 60(3): 783–802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwedler, Jillian. 2006. Faith in Moderation: Islamist Parties in Jordan and Yemen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shugart, Matthew Soberg. 1992. “Guerrillas and Elections: An Institutionalist Perspective on the Costs of Conflict and Competition.” International Studies Quarterly 36(2): 121–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, Jack. 2000. From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Violence. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Söderberg Kovacs, Mimmi. 2007. From Rebellion to Politics: The Transformation of Rebel Groups to Political Parties in Civil War Peace Processes. Uppsala: Uppsala University, Department of Peace and Conflict Research/Institutionen för freds konfliktforskning.Google Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2014a. “Violence and Democracy.” Comparative Politics 47(1): 99–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2014b. Networks of Rebellion: Explaining Insurgent Cohesion and Collapse. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2015a. “Armed Groups and Militarized Elections.” International Studies Quarterly 59(4): 694–705.Google Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2015b. “Militias, Ideology, and the State.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 50: 770–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2017. “Armed Politics and the Study of Intrastate Conflict.” Journal of Peace Research, 54(4): 459–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staniland, Paul, Mir, Asfandyar, and Lalwani, Sameer. 2018. “Politics and Threat Perception: Explaining Pakistani Military Strategy on the Northwest Frontier.” Security Studies, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Straus, Scott, 2015. Making and Unmaking Nations: War, Leadership, and Genocide in Modern Africa. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Straus, Scott and Taylor, Charles. 2012. “Democratization and Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990-2008.” In Voting in Fear: Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa, ed. Bekoe, Dorina. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
Steele, Abbey. 2009. “Seeking Safety: Avoiding Displacement and Choosing Destinations in Civil Wars.” Journal of Peace Research 46(3): 419–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, Abbey. 2011. “Electing Displacement: Political Cleansing in Apartadó, Colombia.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 55(3): 423–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, Abbey. 2017. Democracy and Displacement in Colombia’s Civil War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Steele, Abbey and Schubiger, Livia I.. 2018. “Democracy and Civil War: The Case of Colombia.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 35(5): .Google Scholar
Stuart-Fox, Martin. 1997. A History of Laos. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, Charles Fernandes, Pevehouse, Jon C. W., and Straus, Scott. 2017. “Perils of Pluralism: Electoral Violence and Incumbency in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Peace Research 54(3): 397–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Peter. 1998. Provos: The Ira and Sinn Fein. London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing.Google Scholar
Tribín, Ana María. 2015. “Paramilitaries and Electoral Support.” Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 21(2): 191–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ullah, Haroon K. 2013. Vying for Allah’s Vote: Understanding Islamic Parties, Political Violence, and Extremism in Pakistan. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Varshney, Ashutosh. 2003. Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Voors, Maarten J., Nillesen, Eleonora E. M., Verwimp, Philip, Bulte, Erwin H., Lensink, Robert, and van Soest, Daan P.. 2012. “Violent Conflict and Behavior:A Field Experiment in Burundi.” American Economic Review 102(2): 941–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walter, Barbara F. 1999. “Designing Transitions from Civil War: Demobilization, Democratization, and Commitments to Peace.” International Security 24(1): 127–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wantchekon, Leonard. 2004. “The Paradox of ‘Warlord’ Democracy: A Theoretical Investigation.” American Political Science Review 98(1): 17–33.Google Scholar
Waraich, Omar. 2013. “Pakistan’s Election Season: When Courting Voters Means Courting Death.” Time, April 24.Google Scholar
Weidmann, Nils B. and Callen, Michael. 2013. “Violence and Election Fraud: Evidence from Afghanistan.” British Journal of Political Science 43(1): 53–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, Jeremy. 2006. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, Steven I. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahab, Mariam Abou and Roy, Olivier. 2004. Islamist Networks: The Afghan-Pakistan Connection. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Zahar, Marie-Joelle. 1999. “Fanatics, Mercenaries, Brigands… and Politicians: Militia Decision-Making and Civil Conflict Resolution.” PhD diss., McGill University.Google Scholar