Hostname: page-component-669899f699-7xsfk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-27T03:23:46.077Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

When Resisting Is Not Enough: The killing of Latin American Feminist Activists (2015–23)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2024

Simone da Silva Ribeiro Gomes*
Affiliation:
Simone da Silva Ribeiro Gomes is an associate professor at the Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil

Abstract

The article analyses an original database of 177 Latin American women activists killed that had some connection with feminist social movements from 2015 to 2023. A growing body of literature has focused on the killings of socio-environmental activists in Latin America and where they occurred. However, their activisms are under-researched, precisely because feminist social movements and activists have frequently been killed while advocating for women’s rights in the subcontinent. This article focuses on the circumstances, a few reasons portrayed in newspaper events, and the perpetrators of such violence. Based on a literature review, I argue that taking into account the recent narcodynamics of the region, it is possible to understand such violence within the context of drug-related violence, but also—and more likely—to consider those killings as political feminicides. Political feminicides are then examined largely through transfeminicides and peasant/communitarian activists.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of University of Miami

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abu-Lughod, Lila. 1990. The Romance of Resistance: Tracing Transformations of Power through Bedouin Women. American Ethnologist, 17, 1: 4155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albarracín, Juan, Milanese, Pablo, Valencia, Inge H., and Wolff, Jonas. 2023. Local Competitive Authoritarianism and Post-conflict Violence. An Analysis of the Assassination of Social Leaders in Colombia. International Interactions 49, 2: 237–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Álvarez, Sonia. 2018. Latin American Feminisms “Go Global”: Trends of the 1990s and Challenges for the New Millennium. In Cultures of Politics. Abingdon: Routledge. 293–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballestrin, Luciana. 2022. Postcolonial and Decolonial Subaltern Feminisms. Postcolonial Studies 25, 1: 108–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billon, P. L., and Menton, M. 2021. Introduction. In Environmental Defenders: Deadly Struggles for Life and Territory, eds. Menton, M. and Billon, P.L. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biroli, Flávia, and Caminotti, Mariana. 2020. The Conservative Backlash against Gender in Latin America. Politics & Gender 16,1: E1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bombardi, L., and Almeida, V. 2021. Amazon under siege: An interview with environmental and human rights defender Claudelice dos Santos. Criminological Encounters 5, 1: 219–32.Google Scholar
Bombardi, Larissa, and Almeida, Victor. 2022. Amazon under Siege: An Interview with Environmental and Human Rights Defender Claudelice dos Santos. Criminological Encounters 5, 1: 219–32.Google Scholar
Butler, Judith. 2006. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Butler, Judith. 2016. Frames of War: When is Life Grievable? London: Verso Books.Google Scholar
Castillo, R. H. 2019. La antropología jurídica feminista y sus aportes al trabajo forense con familiares de desaparecidos: alianzas y colaboraciones con “Las Rastreadoras de El Fuerte”. ABYA-YALA: Revista sobre acesso á justiça e direitos nas Américas 3, 2: 94–119.Google Scholar
Comitê Brasileiro de Defensoras e Defensores de Direitos Humanos. 2023. https://comiteddh.org.br/. Accessed May 2024.Google Scholar
Conway, Janet, and Lebon, Natalia. 2021. Popular Feminism (s) Reconsidered: Popular, Racialized, and Decolonial Subjectivities in Contention. Latin American Perspectives 48, 4, 324.Google Scholar
Costa, Sergio. 2018. Entangled Inequalities, State, and Social Policies in Contemporary Brazil. In The Social Life of Economic Inequalities in Contemporary Latin America. Approaches to Social Inequality and Difference, ed. M. Ystanes and M., Strønen. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61536-3_3. Accessed October 17, 2023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Defenders, Fronline, 2021. Global Analysis.Google Scholar
Defenders, Frontline 2015. Annual Report, Human Rights Defenders, Lives in the Balance.Google Scholar
Defenders, Frontline, 2016. Annual Report on Human Rights Defenders at Risk in 2016.Google Scholar
Defenders, Frontline 2020. Global Analysis 2020.Google Scholar
Dimensões da Violência contra Defensoras de Direitos Humanos no Brasil. 2021. http://www.onumulheres.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Relatorio-Defensoras-Violencia1.pdf. Accessed May 2024.Google Scholar
Dorlin, Elsa. 2020. Autodefesa: uma filosofia da violência. Buenos Aires: Ubu Editora.Google Scholar
Esguerra-Muelle, Camila, Ojeda, Diana, Sánchez, Tatiana, and Ulloa, Astrid. 2019. Introducción: violencias contra líderes y lideresas defensores del territorio y el ambiente en América Latina. Lasa Forum 50, 4: 45.Google Scholar
Figueiredo, Myriam. 2021. El proceso de exterminio selectivo de los activistas sociales en México (enero 2017–abril 2019). Revista de Cultura de Paz 5: 123–39.Google Scholar
Figueiredo, Myriam. 2022. Las luchas de los activistas sociales y su costo humano en México (Enero 2017–diciembre 2020). Memoria—Revista de Critica Militante. https://revistamemoria.mx/?p=3635. Accessed October 17, 2023.Google Scholar
Gago, Verónica. 2020. Feminist International: How to Change Everything. Verso Books.Google Scholar
Garretón, Manuel, and Selamé, Nicolas. 2023. New Social Movements in Latin America and the Changing Socio-political Matrix. In F. Rossi The Oxford Handbook of Latin American Social Movements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 54–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garvey, Brian et al. 2022. Green Crime, Territorial Resistance and the Metabolic Rift in Brazil’s Amazon and Cerrado Biomes. Criminological Encounters 5, 1: 165–82.Google Scholar
Global Witness, 2020. Defending Tomorrow: The Climate Crisis and Threats against Land and Environmental Defenders. A report on Global Witness, an NGO.Google Scholar
Global Witness, 2021. Last Line of Defence: The Industries Causing the Climate Crisis and Attacks against Land and Environmental Defenders. A report on Global Witness, an NGO.Google Scholar
Global Witness, 2023. Standing Firm. The Land and Environmental Defenders on the Frontlines of The Climate Crisis. A report on Global Witness, an NGO.Google Scholar
Gomes, Simone. 2016. Oportunidades políticas e estratégias militantes em contextos de violência rotinizada: uma comparação entre a Zona Oeste do Rio de Janeiro (Brasil) e Guerrero (México). Tese apresentada ao Departamento de Sociologia da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro—IESP-UERJ para obtenção do Título de Dra. em Sociologia, 2016.Google Scholar
Humanos, Direitos et al. 2017. Vidas em luta: criminalização e violência contra defensoras e defensores de direitos humanos no Brasil. https://comiteddh.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/terra-de-direitos_dosie_040717_web.pdf. Accessed May 2024.Google Scholar
Ley, Sandra, 2022. High-risk Participation: Demanding Peace and Justice amid Criminal Violence. Journal of Peace Research 59, 6: 794809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loveman, Mara. 1998. High-Risk Collective Action: Defending Human Rights in Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina. American Journal of Sociology 104, 2: 477525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdam, Doug. 1986. Recruitment to high-risk activism: The case of freedom summer. American Journal of Sociology 92, 1: 6490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menjivar, Cecilia. 2011. Enduring Violence: Ladina Women’s Lives in Guatemala. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morato, Natalia. 2021. Colombia’s Murderous Democracy Pre-and Post-COVID-19: The Assassination of Social Leaders and the Criminalization of Protest. In Criminalization of Activism, ed. Valeria Vegh Weis. Abingdon: Routledge. 170–79.Google Scholar
Nah, A. M. (Ed.). 2020. Protecting Human Rights Defenders at Risk. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Observatorio Feminicidios Colombia. 2023. www.observatoriofeminicidioscolombia.org. Accessed May 2024.Google Scholar
Observatorio para la Protección de los Defensores de Derechos Humanos. 2019. https://www.omct.org/es/recursos/noticias/the-observatory-for-the-protection-of-human-rights-defenders. Accessed May 2024.Google Scholar
Red Chilena contra la Violencia hacia las Mujeres 2022. http://www.nomasviolenciacontramujeres.cl/registro-de-femicidios/. Accessed May 2024.Google Scholar
Richards, Patricia. 2003. New Readings on Women’s Movements and Women’s Rights in Latin America. Latin American Politics and Society 45, 2: 159–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rios, Jeronimo. 2023. “This Is Not Legitimate Peace”: The Political Discourse of the Colombian Armed Forces on the Agreement with the FARC-EP. Critical Military Studies 3, 1: 122.Google Scholar
Rousseau, Stephanie. 2006. Women’s Citizenship and Neopopulism: Peru under the Fujimori Regime. Latin American Politics and Society 48, 1: 117–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruggiero, Vincenzo. 2020. Killing Environmental Campaigners: Manifest and Latent Justifications. Criminological Encounters 21, 3: 92–105.Google Scholar
Russell, Diana E. H. 2001. “Introduction: The Politics of Femicide.” In Femicide in Global Perspective, ed. Diana, E. H. Russell and Roberta, A. Harmes. New York: Teachers College Press. 311.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Arnim et al. 2020. Environmental Conflicts and Defenders: A Global Overview. Global Environmental Change 63: 102–04.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheper-Hughes, N. 1992. Death without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Univ of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheper-Hugues, Nancy. 1992. Death Without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz-Marin, Ernesto, and Cruz-Santiago, Arely. 2016. Pure Corpses, Dangerous Citizens: Transgressing the Boundaries between Experts and Mourners in the Search for the Disappeared in Mexico. Social Research 83, 2: 483510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, James. 1985. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Seeds Report. 2021. Situation of Human Rights Advocates in Brazil. https://sementesdeprotecao.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Relatorio-Sementes-de-Protecao-2021-English.pdf. Accessed May 2024.Google Scholar
Segato, Rita. 2008. La escritura en el cuerpo de las mujeres asesinadas en Ciudad Juárez: territorio, soberanía y crímenes de segundo estado. Debate Feminista 37: 78102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segato, Rita, 2022. Cenas de um pensamento incômodo: gênero, cárcere e cultura em uma visada decolonial. Rio de Janeiro: Bazar do Tempo.Google Scholar
Somma, Nicolas. 2021. Social Movements in Latin America: Mapping the Literature. In The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Souza, Natalia, and Selis, Lara. 2022, Gender Violence and Feminist Resistance in Latin America. International Feminist Journal of Politics 24, 1: 515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Souza, Renata. 2020. Feminicídio político: um estudo sobre a vida e a morte de Marielles. Cadernos de Gênero e Diversidade 6, 2: 119–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stallone, Kiran, and Margaret Zulver, Julia. 2023. The Gendered Risks of Defending Rights in Armed Conflict: Evidence from Colombia. Journal of Peace Research 0: 1–14.Google Scholar
Sternbach, Nancy Saporta, Navarro-Aranguren, Marysa, Chuchryk, Patricia, and Alvarez, Sonia. 1992. Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogotá to San Bernardo. Signs 17, 2: 393434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, Barbara. 2018. Surviving State Terror—Women’s Testimonies of Repression and Resistance in Argentina. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Switzer, H. 2013. (Post) Feminist Development Fables: The Girl Effect and the Production of Sexual Subjects. Feminist Theory 14, 3: 345–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toledo, Israel, Cavalcanti, Roxana, and Souza, Grace. 2021. An Analysis of the Criminalization of Socio-environmental Activism and Resistance in Contemporary Latin America. In Criminalization of Activism, ed. Valeria Vegh Weis. Abingdon: Routledge. 191200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valencia, Sayak. 2018. Gore Capitalism, Vol. 24. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Verges, Françoise. 2021. Uma teoria feminista da violência: por uma política antirracista da proteção. Rio de Janeiro: Ubu Editora.Google Scholar
Weis, Valeria, ed. 2021. Criminalization of Activism: Historical, Present and Future Perspectives. Abingdon: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaremberg, G., Tabbush, C., & Friedman, E. J. 2021. Feminism (s) and Anti-gender Backlash: Lessons from Latin America. International Feminist Journal of Politics 23, 4: 527–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zibechi, R. 2012. Territories in Resistance: A Cartography of Latin American Social Movements. Ak Press.Google Scholar
Zulver, Julia. 2022. High-risk Feminism in Colombia: Women’s Mobilization in Violent Contexts. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar