Hostname: page-component-5f56664f6-bqpqz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-08T00:50:00.318Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Erlitou and the Formation of Chinese Civilization: Toward a New Paradigm

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 April 2007

Sarah Allan
Get access

Abstract

This paper offers an alternative paradigm to dynastic history and state formation with which to understand the formation of Chinese civilization: cultural hegemony. It argues that an elite culture first crystallized in the early second millennium BCE at Yanshi Erlitou in Henan Province in which bronze was associated with a set of religious practices centered on ancestral offerings. It established a cultural hegemony over the Chinese continental region by the middle of the millennium (early Shang Dynasty). Archaeologically, its primary markers are bronze vessels with a common set of motifs and ritual forms. Although cultural diversity and local political authority remained, it was unlike the previous Neolithic cultures because it had no challenger in range or influence. Moreover, it anticipated the later common elite culture, which in Confucius's time was defined in terms of shared rites. Thus, we may legitimately call it an early stage of “Chinese civilization.”

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 66 , Issue 2 , May 2007 , pp. 461 - 496
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

List of References

Allan, Sarah. 1984. “The Myth of the Xia Dynasty.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1984(2): 242–56.Google Scholar
Allan, Sarah. 1991. The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China, Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Allan, Sarah. Forthcoming. “On the Identity of Shang Di 上帝and the Origin of the Concept of a Celestial Mandate (tian ming 天命).”Google Scholar
Bagley, Robert W. 1988. “Sacrificial Pits of the Shang Period at Sanxingdui in Guanghan County, Sichuan Province.” Arts Asiatiques 43: 78–86.Google Scholar
Bagley, Robert W. 1999. “Shang Archaeology.” InThe Cambridge History of Ancient China, Michael, Loewe and Edward, L. Shaughnessy, 124–231. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beijing Keji Daxue Zhijin yu Cailiaoshi Yanjiusuo 北京科技大學治金與材料史研究所, and Gansusheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 甘肅省文物考古研究所. 2003. “Huoshaogou Siba wenhua tongqi chengfen fenxi ji zhizuo jishu de yanjiu 火燒溝四壩文化同期成分分析及製作技術的研究” [The Bronzes of the Siba Culture at Huoshaogou: Research on Component Analysis and Techniques of Manufacture]. Wenwu (8): 86–96.Google Scholar
Chang, K. C. 1986. The Archaeology of Ancient China. 4th edition.New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Chen Xingcan 陳星澯, , Liu Li 劉莉, , Li Runquan 李潤權, , Wright, Henry T. and Rosen, Arlene Miller. 2003. “Zhongguo wenming fudi de shehui fuzahua jincheng—Yi Luo he diqu de quluo xingtai yanjiu 中國文明腹地的社會複雜化進程—伊洛河地區的區落形態研究” [Development of Social Complexity in the Heartland of Chinese Civilization: Yilou Region Settlement Patterns]. Kaogu Xuebao (2): 161–218.Google Scholar
Cook, Constance A. 1997. “Wealth and the Western Zhou.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 60(2): 253–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Argencé, René-Yvon Lefebvre. 1977. Bronze Vessels of Ancient China in the Avery Brundage Collection. San Francisco: Asian Art Museum of San Francisco.Google Scholar
Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏, . 1994. “Shang Zhou tong jue yanjiu 商周铜爵研究” [Research on Bronze jue of the Shang and Zhou]Kaogu Xuebao. (3): 263–98.Google Scholar
Du Jinpeng 杜金鹏, . 2004. Yanshi Shangcheng yizhi yanjiu 偃師商城遺址研究 [Research on the Shang City, Yanshi Site]. Beijing: Kexue.Google Scholar
Eberhard, Wolfram. 1942. Lokalkulturen in Alten China [Local Cultures in Ancient China]. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Falkenhausen, Lothar von. 1999. “The Waning of the Bronze Age: Material Culture and Social Developments, 770–481 B.C.” InThe Cambridge History of Ancient China? ed. Michael, Loewe and Edward, L. Shaughnessy450–554. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falkenhausen, Lothar von. 2004. “Mortuary Behavior in Pre-Imperial Qin: A Religious Interpretation.” In Religion and Chinese Society ed. Lagerwey, John, 109–72. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fang Yanming 方燕明, . 2005. “Dengfeng Wangchenggang yizhi kaogu xin faxian ji qi yiyi 登封王城崗遺址考古新發現及其意義” [New Archaeological Discoveries at the Site of Wangchenggang, Dengfeng and Their Significance]. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Gudai Wenming Yanjiu Zhongxin: Tongxun 9: 34–9.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald-Huber, Louisa G. 1995. “Qijia and Erlitou: The Question of Contacts with Distant Cultures.” Early China 20: 17–68.Google Scholar
Gao Guangren 高廣仁, , and Shao Wangping 邵望平, . 1981. “Shiqian tao gui chulun 史前陶鬶初論” [Preliminary Discussion of Prehistorical Pottery gui]. Kaogu Xuebao (4): 427–60.Google Scholar
Granet, Marcel. 1959. Danses et légendes de la Chine ancienne [Dances and Legends of Ancient China]. Paris: Presses Universaires.Google Scholar
Han Weizhou 韓維周, . 1954. “Henan Dengfengxian Yucun gu wenhua yizhi gaikuan 河南登封縣玉村古文化遺址概況” [Survey of Ancient Culture Site of Yucun, Dengfengxian, Henan]. Wenwu cankao ciliao (6): 18–24.Google Scholar
Henansheng Wenwu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物研究所, . 1983. “Zhengzhou bei er qi lu xin faxian sanzuo Shang mu 鄭州北二七路新發現三座商墓” [Three Shang Tombs Discovered at Beierqi Road, Zhengzhou]. Wenwu (3): 60–77.Google Scholar
Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物考古研究所, . 1999. Zhengzhou Shangdai caocang 鄭州商代窖藏 [Storage Pits with Shang Dynasty Bronze Artifacts, Zhengzhou]. Beijing: Kexue.Google Scholar
Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物考古研究所, . 2001. Zhengzhou Shangcheng 1953–85 nian kaogu fajue baogao 鄭州商城： 1953–85年考古發掘報告 [The Shang City at Zhengzhou: Report on Archaeological Excavations, 1953–85]. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物考古研究所, . 2003: “Zhengzhou Shangcheng xin faxian de jizuo Shang mu 鄭州商城新發現的幾座商墓” [Some Shang Tombs Recently Discovered at the Shang City, Zhengzhou]. Wenwu (4): 4–20.Google Scholar
Henansheng Wenwu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物研究所, , and Zhongguo Lishibowuguan [Li Bo] 中國歷史博物館, . 1983. “Dengfeng Wangchenggang yizhi de fajue 鄧蜂王城崗遺址的發掘” [The Excavation of the Wangchenggang, Dengfeng Site]. Wenwu (3): 8–20.Google Scholar
Henansheng Wenwu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物研究所, , and Zhongguo Lishibowuguan [Li Bo] 中國歷史博物館, . 1992. Dengfeng Wangchenggang yu Yangcheng 鄧蜂王城崗與陽城 [Wangchenggang and Yangcheng, Dengfeng]. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Henansheng Wenwu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物研究所, , and Zhengzhoushi Bowuguan 鄭州市博物館, . 1983. “Zhengzhou xin faxian Shangdai jiaocang qingtongqi 鄭州新發現商代窖藏青銅器” [Newly Discovered Bronze Artifacts from a Shang Dynasty Storage Pit, Zhengzhou]. Wenwu (3): 49–59.Google Scholar
Hu Houxuan 胡厚宣, . 1944. “Yindai hunyin jiazu zongfa shengyu zhidu kao 殷代婚姻家族宗法生育制度考” [An Inquiry into the Systems of Marriage, Clan, Lineage and Descent in the Yin Dynasty]. In Jiaguxue Shangshi luncong, chu ji 甲骨學商史論叢, 初集I [Collection of Essays on Oracle Bone Inscriptions and Shang History, Part I], by Hu, Houxuan, 113–82. Chengdu: Jilu Daxue [Taiwan facsimile].Google Scholar
Hubeisheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 湖北省考古研究所, . 2001. Panlongcheng. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Jiangxisheng Bowuguan 江西省博物館, , Jiangxisheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 江西省文物考古研究所, , and Xin'ganxian Bowuguan 新干博物館, . 1997. Xin'gan Shangdai da mu 新干商代大墓 [The Large Shang Dynasty Tomb at Xin'gan]. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Karlgren, Bernhard. 1936. “Yin and Chou in Chinese Bronzes.” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 8: 99–156.Google Scholar
Karlgren, Bernhard. 1946. “Legends and Cults in Ancient China.” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 18: 199–365.Google Scholar
Li, Boqian. 2004. “Patterns of Development among China's Bronze Cultures.” In New Perspectives on China's Past: Chinese Archaeology in the Twentieth Century, ed. Yang, Xiaoneng, 188–99. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Li Huhou 李虎后, . 1980. “Qijia wenhua tongjing de fei pohuai jianding: kuaizhongzi fangshe huafenxifa 齊家文化銅鏡的非破壞鑑定: 快中子放射化分析法” [Evaluating Qijia Culture Metal Mirrors without Causing Damage: The Method of Rapid Neutron Radiation Analysis]. Kaogu 1980 (4): 365–69.Google Scholar
Li Xueqin李學勤, . 1987. “Cong chuanchu Shangqiu diqu de Erlitou wenhua tanqi 從傳出商丘地區的二里頭文化銅爵談起” [Discussion of an Erlitou Culture Bronze jue Reputedly Unearthed at Shangqiu]. In Li Xueqin ji 李學勤集 [Collection of Articles by Li Xueqin], 92–97. Harbin: Heilongjiang Jiaoyu.Google Scholar
Li Xueqin李學勤, . 1993. “Liangzhu Culture and the Shang Dynasty Taotie Motif.” In The Problem of Meaning in Early Chinese Ritual Bronzes. ed. Roderick, Whitfield, 56–66. London: University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies.Google Scholar
Li Xueqin李學勤, . 1994. “Lun Erlitou Wenhua de taotiewen tongshii 二里頭 文化的饕餮文銅飾” [On Erlitou Culture Bronze Ornaments with the taotie Motif]. In Zouchu Yigu Shidai 走出疑古時代 [Leaving the Doubt Antiquity Era], by Li, Xueqin, 149–52. Shenyang: Liaoning Daxue, 1997.Google Scholar
Li Xueqin李學勤, . 1997. Zouchu Yigu Shidai 走出疑古時代 [Leaving the Doubt Antiquity Era]. Shenyang: Liaoning Daxue.Google Scholar
Li Xueqin李學勤, . 2002a. “Tan Yilang Shahedade chutu de hongtong jue, gu xing qi 談伊朗沙赫達德出土的紅銅爵，觚形器” [Discussion of the Copper jue and gu Unearthed at Shahdad, Iran]. In Chongxie xueshu shi重寫學術史 [Rewriting the History of Scholarship], 229–33. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Jiaoyu.Google Scholar
Li Xueqin李學勤, . 2002b. “The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results.” Journal of East Asian Archaeology 4(1–4): 321–33.Google Scholar
Li Yanxiang 李延祥, , Gu Haixin 賈海新, , and Zhu Yanping 朱延平, . 2003. “Dadianzi mudi chutu tongqi chubu yanjiu 大甸子墓地銅器初步研究” [Preliminary Research on Bronze Artifacts from the Dadianzi Cemetery]. Wenwu (7): 78–84.Google Scholar
Linduff, , Katheryn, M., Han Rubin, and Sun, Shuyun, eds. 2000. The Beginnings of Metallurgy in China. Lampeter, U.K.: Edwin Mellon.Google Scholar
Liu, Li and Xingcan, Chen. 2003. State Formation in Early China. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Liu Yu 刘雨, 1989. “Xi Zhou jinwen zhong de jizuli 西周金文中的祭祖礼” [Ancestral Offering Rites in Western Zhou Bronze Inscriptions]. Kaogu xuebao (4): 495–522.Google Scholar
Mai Gewen 麥戈文 [Patrick McGovern], et al. 2005. “Shandong Rizhaoshi Liangchengzhen yizhi Longshan wenhua jiu yicun de huaxue fenxi 山東日照市兩城鎮遺址龍山文化酒遺存的化學分析” [A Chemical Analysis of the Fermented Beverage Unearthed from the Liangchengzhen Site at Richao City, Shandong]. Kaogu (3): 73–85.Google Scholar
Maspero, Henri. 1924. “Légendes mythologiques dans la Chou King” [Mythological Legends in the Book of Documents]. Journal Asiatique 204: 11–100.Google Scholar
McGovern, Patrick. 2003. Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Shanghai Bowuguan Qingtongqi Yanjiusuo 上海博物館青銅器研究所, . 1984. Shang Zhou Qingtongqi Wenshi 商周青銅器紋飾 [Shang and Zhou Bronze Ornaments]. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Shao, Wangping. 2005. “The Interaction Sphere of the Longshan Period.” In The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective, ed. Sarah, Allan, 85–123. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sichuansheng Wenwu Guanli Weiyuanhui 四川省文物管理委員會, , Sichuansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 四川省考古研究所, , and Sichuansheng Guanghanxian wenhuaju 四川省廣漢縣文化局, . 1987. “Guanghan Sanxingdui yizhi yihao jisikeng fajue jianbao” [Preliminary Report on the Excavation of the Sacrificial Pit, Number 1, at the Sanxingdui, Guanghan Site]. Wenwu (10): 1–15.Google Scholar
Sichuansheng Wenwu Guanli Weiyuanhui 四川省文物管理委員會, , Sichuansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 四川省考古研究所, , and Sichuansheng Guanghanxian wenhuaju 四川省廣漢縣文化局, . 1989. “Guanghan Sanxingdui yizhi erhao jisikeng fajue jianbao” [Preliminary Report on the Excavation of the Sacrificial Pit, Number 2, at the Sanxingdui, Guanghan Site]. Wenwu (5): 1–20.Google Scholar
Sichuansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 四川省文物考古研究所, . 1999. Sanxingdui jisi keng 三星堆祭祀坑 [The Sacrificial Pits at Sanxingdui]. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Sperber, Dan. 1996. Explaining Culture: A Naturalistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Su Rongyu 蘇榮譽, , Hua Jueming 華覺明, , Li Kemin 李克敏, , and Lu Benshan 盧本珊, . 1995. Zhongguo shanggu jinshu jishu 中國上古金屬技術 [The Metal Technology of Early Ancient China]. Jinan: Shandong Kexue Jishu.Google Scholar
Shuyun, Sun. 2000. “Report on a Bronze Fragment (WT196H617:14) from Longshan Phase IV at Wangchenggang, Dengfeng.” In The Beginnings of Metallurgy in China, ed. Katheryn, M. Linduff, Han, Rubin and Shuyun, Sun, 209–11. Lampeter, U.K.: Edwin Mellon.Google Scholar
Sun Shuyun 孫淑雲, , and Han Rubin 韓汝玢, . 1997. “Gansu zaoqi tongqi de faxian yu yelian, zhizao jishu de yanjiu 甘肅早期銅器的發現與冶煉，製造技術的研究” [A Study of Casting and Techniques of Manufacture of the Early Copper and Bronze Artifacts Found in Gansu]. Wenwu (7): 75–84.Google Scholar
Thorp, Robert, L. 2006. China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trigger, , Bruce, G. 2003. Understanding Early Civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang Qing 王青, . 2004. “Xiangqian tongpaishi de chubu yanjiu 鑲嵌銅牌飾的初步研究” [Preliminary Research on Inlaid Bronze Plaques]. Wenwu (5): 65–72.Google Scholar
Wang, Tao. 1992. “A Textual Investigation of the Taotie.” InThe Problem of Meaning in Early Chinese Ritual Bronzes, ed. Whitifield, Roderick, 102–18. London: University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies.Google Scholar
Wang Yuxin王宇信, , and Yang Shengnan 楊升南, . 1999. Jiaguxue yibai nian 甲骨學一百年 [One Hundred Years of Oracle Bone Studies]. Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian.Google Scholar
Watson, James L. ed. 1997. Golden Arches East: McDonalds in East Asia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Watson, James L. 2005. “China's Big Mac Attack.” In The Cultural Politics of Food and Eating, ed. Watson, James L. and Caldwell, Melissa L., 70–79. London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Xia-Shang-Zhou Duandai Gongcheng Zhuanjiazu 夏商週斷代工程專家組, [Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project]. 2000. Xia Shang Zhou duandai gongcheng 1996–2000 nian jieduan chengguo baogao (jianben) 夏商周斷代工程 1996–2000 年階段成果報告 (簡本) [Report on the Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project, 1996–2000, Simplified Edition]. Bejing: Shijie Tushu Chuban Gongsi.Google Scholar
Xu Hong許宏, . 2004. “Erlitou yizhi fajue he yanjiu de huigu yu sikao 二里頭遺址發掘和研究的回顧與思考” [Looking Back and Reconsidering the Excavation and Research on the Erlitou Site]. Kaogu (11): 32–38.Google Scholar
Xu Hong許宏, . 2005. “Henan Yanshi Erlitou yizhi faxian daxing lusongshi longxingqi 河南偃師二里頭遺址發現大型綠松石龍形器” [A Large Dragon-Shaped Turquoise Artifact Discovered at the Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan Site]. Zhongguo wenwu bao 中國文物報, January 21.Google Scholar
Xu Hong 許宏, , Chen Guoliang 陳國梁, , and Zhao Haitao 趙海濤, . 2004. “Erlitou yizhi juluo xingtai de chubu kaocha 二里頭遺址聚落形態的初步考察” [A Preliminary Study of the Settlement Pattern of the Erlitou Site]. Kaogu (11): 23–31.Google Scholar
Xu Lianggao 徐良高, . 1999. Zhongguo minzu wenhua yuan xintan 中國民族文化源新談 [A New Discussion of the Origin of Chinese Ethnic Cultures]. Beijing: Shehui kexueyuan wenxian.Google Scholar
Xu Xusheng 徐旭生, . 1959. “1959 nian Yu xi diaocha ‘Xia Xu’ de chubu baogao年預西調查” [A Preliminary Report on the Survey of the “Xia Remains” in Western Henan in 1959]. Kaogu (11): 592–603.Google Scholar
Yan, Yunxiang. 2005. “Of Hamburger and Social Space: Consuming McDonald's in Beijing.” In The Cultural Politics of Food and Eating, ed. James, L. WatsonMelissa Caldwell, 80–103. London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Yang, Xiaoneng, ed. 1999. The Golden Age of Chinese Archaeology: Celebrated Discoveries from the People's Republic of China. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Yang, Xiaoneng. 2004. New Perspectives on China's Past: Chinese Archaeology in the Twentieth Century. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Yang Yubin 楊育彬, , and Sun Kuangqing 孫厰淸, . 2002. Henan kaogu tansuo 河南考古探索 [A Survey of Henan Archaeology]. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji.Google Scholar
Yanshixian Wenhuaguan 偃師縣文化館, . 1978. “Erlitou yizhi chutu de tongqi yu yuqi 二里頭遺址出土的銅器與玉” [Bronzes and Jades Unearthed at the Erlitou Site]. Kaogu (4): 270.Google Scholar
Ye Wansong 葉萬松, and Li Defang 李德方, . 2001. “Yanshi Erlitou shouwen tongpai kaoshi 偃師二里頭遺址獸文銅牌考試” [An Examination of the Bronze Plaques with Animal Designs from the Erlitou, Yanshi Site]. Kaogu yu Wenwu 考古與文物 (5): 40–47.Google Scholar
Yin, Wei-chang. 1982. “A Reexamination of Erh-li-t'ou Culture.” In Studies of Shang Archaeology, ed. Chang, K. C.Chang, K. C, 1–14. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Yoffee, Norman. 2003: Myths of the Archaic State: Evolution of the Earliest Cities, States, and Civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zheng Guang 鄭光, . 1995a. Erlitou taoqi jicui 二里頭陶器集粹 [The Best of Erlitou Pottery]. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue.Google Scholar
Zheng Guang 鄭光, . 1995b. “Erlitou yizhi yu woguo zaoqi qingtong wenming 二里頭遗址與我國早期青銅文明” [The Erlitou Site and the Origin of China's Early Bronze Civilization]. In Zhongguo kaoguxue luncong 中國考古學論叢 [Collected Essays on Chinese Archaeology], ed. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中國社會科學院考古研究所, , 190–95. Beijing: Kexue.Google Scholar
Zheng Guang 鄭光, . 1996. “Erlitou yizhi de fajue 二里頭遺址的發掘” [The Excavation of the Erlitou Site]. In Xia Wenhua Lunwenji 夏文化論文集 [Collected Essays on Xia Culture], ed. Zhongguo Xian Qin Shi Xuehui 中國先秦史學會, and Luoyangshi Di'er Wenwu Gongzuodui 洛陽市第二文物工作隊, , 66–80. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.Google Scholar
Zhang Guangzhi 張光直, [K. C. Chang]. 1973. Shang Zhou qingtongqi yu mingwen de zhonghe yanjiu 商周青銅器與名文的綜合研究 [Inscribed Shang and Zhou Bronzes: A Comprehensive Study]. Monograph of the Institute of History and Philology LXII. Taipei: Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Zhang Xuelian 張雪蓮, , Qiu Shihua 仇士華, , Cai Lianzhen 蔡蓮珍, . 2005. “Zhengzhou Shangcheng he Yanshi Shangcheng de tanshise niandai fenxi 鄭州商城和偃師商城的碳十四年代分析” [Chronological Analysis of the Zhengzhou and Yanshi Shang Cities Using Carbon-14 Dating]. Zhongyuan Wenwu (1): 34–41.Google Scholar
Zhengzhoushi Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 鄭州市文物考古研究所, , and Xingyangshi Wenwu Baohuguan Lisuo 滎陽市文物保護管理所, . 2004. “Henan Xingyang Dashigu yizhi 2002 niandu fajue jianbao 河南滎陽大師姑遺址 2002 年度發掘簡報” [Excavation of the Dashigu Site at Xingyang, Henan in 2002]. Kaogu (11): 4–18.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1974. “Henan Yanshi Erlitou Zao Shang gongdian yizhi fajue baogao 河南二里頭早商宮殿遺址發掘報告” [Excavation Report on the Early Shang Palace Site at Erlitou]. Kaogu (4): 234–48.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1975. “Yanshi Erlitou yizhi san, ba qu fajue jianbao 偃師二裏頭遺址三八區發掘簡報” [Brief Report on the Excavation of Sectors 3 and 8 at Erlitou, Yanshi]. Kaogu (5): 302–9.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1976. “Yanshi Erlitou yizhi xin faxian de tongqi yu yuqi 偃師二裏頭遺址新發現的銅器與玉器新发现的铜器與玉器” [Recently Discovered Bronzes and Jades from the Erlitou, Yanshi Site]. Kaogu (4): 259–63.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1983. “1980 nian Henan Yanshi Erlitou yizhi fajue jianbao 1989年河南偃師二里頭遺址發掘簡報” [Brief Report on the Excavation of the Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan Site in 1980]. Kaogu (3): 199–205, 219.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1984. “1981 nian Henan Yanshi Erlitou muzang fajue jianbao 1981 年河南偃师二里头墓葬发掘简报” [Brief Report on the Excavation of Tombs at Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan in 1981]. Kaogu (1): 37–40.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1986. “1984 nian qiu Henan Yanshi Erlitou yizhi faxian de jizuo mu 1984 年秋河南偃師二里頭遺址發現的幾座墓葬” [Some Tombs Discovered at the Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan Site in 1984]. Kaogu (4): 318–23.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1991. “Henan Yanshi Erlitou yizhi faxian xin de tongqi 河南偃師二里頭遺址發現新的銅器” [Recently Discovered Bronzes from Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan]. Kaogu (12): 1138–39.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 1992. “1987 Yanshi Erlitou yizhi muzang fajue jianbao 1987偃 師二里頭遺址墓葬發掘簡報” [Brief Report on the Tombs Excavated at the Erlitou, Yanshi Site in 1987]. Kaogu (4): 294–303.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 2001. “Erlitou yizhi shouci faxian qingtong yue 二里頭遺址首次發現青銅鉞” [The First Discovery of a Bronze yue ax at the Erlitou Site]. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Wenming Yanjiu Zhongxin: Tongxun 中國社會科學院古代文明研究中心通訊, no. 2 (July): 43–44.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 2004a. “Henan Yanshishi Erlitou yizhi gongcheng ji gongdianqu waiwei daolu de kancha yu fajue 河南偃師市二里頭遺址宮城及宮殿區外圍道路的勘察與發掘” [Survey and Excavation of the Palace City and Roads at the Periphery of the Palace Area at the Site of Erlitou, Yanshi City, Henan]. Kaogu (11): 3–13.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 2004b. “Henan Yanshishi Erlitou yizhi sihao hangtu jizhi fajue jianbao 河南偃師市二里頭遺址4號夯土基址發掘簡報” [Brief Report on the Tamped Earth Foundation, No. 4, at the Erlitou, Yanshi City, Henan Site]. Kaogu (11): 3–13.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 2005a. “Henan Luoyang pendi 2001–2003 nian diaocha jianbao 河南洛陽盆地 2001–2003 年考古調查簡報” [Brief Report on the 2001–2003 Survey of the Luoyang Basin, Henan]. Kaogu (5): 18–37.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Erlitou Gongzuodui中國社會科學院考古研究所二里頭工作隊, . 2005b. “Henan Yanshishi Erlitou yizhi zhongxinqu de kaogu xin faxian 河南偃師市二里頭遺址中心區的考古新發現” [Recent Archaeological Discoveries in the Central Sector of Erlitou, Yanshi City, Henan]. Kaogu (7): 15–20.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo中國社會科學院考古研究, . 1959a. Miaodigou yu Sanliqiao 廟底溝與三里橋 [Miaodigou and Sanliqiao]. Beijing: Kexue.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo中國社會科學院考古研究, . 1959b. Zhengzhou Erligang 鄭州二里崗 [Erligang, Zhengzhou]. Beijing: Kexue.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Qingtongqi Quanji Bianji Weiyuanhui 中國青銅器全集編輯委員會, . 1996. Zhongguo qingtongqi quanji [Complete Collection of Chinese Bronzes]. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中國社會科學院考古研究, . 1985. Yinxu Qingtongqi 殷墟青銅器 [Yinxu Bronzes]. Beijing: Wenwu.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中國社會科學院考古研究, . 1996. Dadianzi: Xiajiadian xiaceng wenhua yizhi yu mudi fajue baogao 大甸子：夏家店下層文化遺址與墓地發掘報告 [Dadianzi: Archaeological Report on the Lower Xiajiadian Culture Site and Cemetery]. Beijing: Kexue.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中國社會科學院考古研究, . 1999. Henan Yanshi Erlitou: 1959–1978 nian kaogu fajue baogao 河南偃師二里頭：1959–1978年考古發掘報告 [Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan: Report on Excavations from 1959–1978]. Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中國社會科學院考古研究, . 2003. Zhongguo Kaoguxue: Xia Shang Juan 中國考古學：夏商卷 [Chinese Archaeology: Xia and Shang]. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan.Google Scholar
Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Shanxi Gongzuodui 中國社會科學院考古研究所山西工作隊, , and Linfen Diqu Wenhuaju 臨汾地區文化局, . 1984. “Shanxi Xiangfen Taosi yizhi shouci fajue qingtongqi 山西襄汾陶寺遺址首次發掘青銅器” [The First Discovery of Bronze Artifacts at the Taosi, Xiangfen Shanxi Site]. Kaogu (12): 1068–71.Google Scholar
Zhou Kunshu 周昆叔, . 2005. “Zhonghua minzu wenhua de kexin—Songshan wenhuaquan 中華民族文化的核心—嵩山文化圈” [The Core of Chinese Culture: The Cultures Surrounding Song Mountain]. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Gudai Wenming Yanjiu Zhongxin: Tongxun 9: 30–33.Google Scholar
Zhu Fenghan 朱鳳瀚, . 1995. Gudai Zhongguo Qingtongqi 古代中國青銅器 [Ancient Chinese Bronzes]. Tianjin: Nankai Daxue.Google Scholar