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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 October 2024
This article argues that John’s christology affirms the material visibility of God by reconciling the notion of an “unseen” God to the visibility of the Father that Jesus presents. Three pieces of evidence support this claim. The first is that “unseen” and “invisible” are not synonymous. A survey of Second Temple, biblical, and rabbinic literature reveals that one may not assume that all hellenized Jews embraced Platonist notions of invisibility. Second, Jesus presents the Father as visible, however restricted that visibility may be to Jesus’s person. Third, John’s use of Isaiah suggests that the visibility of God in the theophanies is consonant with God’s visibility in Jesus.
I am deeply grateful to Jane Heath, John Barclay, Catrin Williams, Isaac Soon, Logan Williams, Dan York, Josiah Hall, and Brittany Wilson for helpful conversations and criticism regarding this article. I also thank the research seminars at Durham University and at the University of Wales Trinity Saint David as well as the Johannine Literature section at SBL for allowing me to present earlier versions of this article as a paper. Thanks are also due to the anonymous readers at HTR for their helpful suggestions.
1 Rudolf Bultmann, The Gospel of John: A Commentary (ed. George Beasley-Murray; trans. George R. Beasley-Murray et al.; Oxford: Blackwell, 1971) 81.
2 Origen, Princ. 1; Augustine, Homilies on the Gospel of John 1–40 (trans. Edmund Hill; ed. Allan D. Fitzgerald; The Works of Saint Augustine: A Translation for the 21st Century III/12; Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 2009) 3.18–19; Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Gospel of John, Chapters 1–8 (trans. Fabian R. Larcher; Latin/English Edition of the Works of St. Thomas Aquinas 35; Lander, WY: Aquinas Institute for the Study of Sacred Doctrine, 2013) 11.209–214.
3 For instance, ἀόρατος (invisible), ἀσώματος (incorporeal), ἀειδῆ (without form), ἄρρετος (ineffable), and ἀδέκαστος (incorruptible) often occur in various combinations across Philo’s corpus. See Peter Frick, Divine Providence in Philo of Alexandria (TSAJ 77; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 40. Pseudo-Aristotle [Mund.] 399b11–22; Plutarch, E ap. Delph. 392E–393D; Alcinous, Epit. 10; Numenius, Frags. 4a–b and 16; Apuleius, Dogm. Plat. 1.5–191; Philo, Opif., passim; Josephus, B.J. 7.341–357; Aristides, Apol. 1; Justin Martyr, 1 Apol. 13–14; Tatian, Or. Graec. 4.3; Athenagoras, Leg. 10.1; and Theophilus of Antioch, Autol. 1.3–5. All of these authors take time to explain the worlds of being and becoming and situate divine transcendence according to them. Each uses alpha privatives to do so, ἀόρατος often foremost among them; and Justin Martyr claims that the Jews think God has a body (Dial. 114). Guy Stroumsa observes that Origen (Gen. hom. 1.13), Basil the Great (Hom. De hominies struc. 1.5), and Arnobius of Sicca (Adv. Nations 3.12) likewise attest to (and reject) a Jewish conception of divine corporeality; see his, “Form(s) of God: Some Notes on Metatron and Christ,” HTR 76 (1983) 269–88. For Clement of Alexandria, see Henny Fiskå Häig, Clement of Alexandria and the Beginnings of Christian Apophaticism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) 153–79, esp. 159. Examples of ἀόρατος in the NT include Rom 1:20 (τὰ γὰρ ἀόρατα αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ κτίσεως κόσμου τοῖς ποιήμασιν νοούμενα καθοράται); Col 1:15 (τοῦ θεοῦ τοῦ άοράτου); 1 Tim 1:17 (άφθάρτῳ ἀοράτῳ μόνῳ θεῴ) and 6:16 (ὁ μόνος ἔχων ἀθανασίαν, φῶς οἰκῶν ἀπόσιτον); Heb 11:27 (τὸν γὰρ ἀόρατον ὡς ὁρῶν ἐκαρτέρησεν). Invisibility also characterizes God across the Nag Hammadi literature, e.g., Tri. Trac. 59, 66; Apoc. Adam 2:3.
4 For this distinction see also Andrew Malone, “The Invisibility of God: A Survey of a Misunderstood Phenomenon,” EQ 79 (2007) 311–29, and Brittany Wilson, The Embodied God: Seeing the Divine in Luke-Acts and the Early Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021) 63–77, esp. 73–74.
5 Aristobulus describes a God who descends and makes himself manifest at Sinai even as he emphasizes the metaphorical nature of God’s limbs. Dragoş Giulea thus characterizes him as not belonging to the noetic turn in Judaism, which Giulea finds to begin properly with Philo; see his “The Noetic Turn in Jewish Thought,” JSJ 42 (2011) 23–57.
6 Further attestation to Hellenistic Jewish conceptions of God that may suggest immateriality are found in Strabo and Tacitus. See Menahem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (3 vols.; Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1976–1984). For Strabo see 115 and for Tacitus see 281. Regarding Tacitus, who says that the Jews conceive of one God with the mind only, it is important to recall that prohibition of images is not synonymous with an intrinsic invisibility. In Origen, Cels. 1.5, Numenius is quoted as attributing a view like Tacitus’s to the Jews. Ekaterina Matusova traces the influence of Peripatetic and Platonic notions of divine transcendence on Aristobulus’s and Philo’s accounts of seeing God; see her “‘Seeing’ God in Alexandrian Exegesis of the Bible: From Aristobulus to Philo,” in Gottesschau – Gotteserkenntnis. Studien zur Theologie der Septuaginta, Band I (ed. Evangelia G. Dafni; WUNT 387; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017) 63–86.
7 See Benjamin D. Sommer, The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) 1–10, for emphasis on this point regarding the Jewish Scriptures’ depiction of God. Simeon Chavel locates the danger less in an overpowering divine radiance than in failure to approach God properly. God is like a king and only those invited to see him in the proper context may do so. Inappropriate approach leads to death; see his “The Face of God and the Etiquette of Eye-Contact: Visitation, Pilgrimage, and Prophetic Vision in Ancient Israelite and Early Jewish Imagination,” JSQ 19 (2012) 1–55.
8 Prominent examples include: Abraham (Gen 18:1); Hagar (Gen 16:13); Jacob (Gen 32:30); Moses (Exod 33:11, 20; 34:5–6; Num 12:6–8; Deut 34:10); Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, the seventy elders (Exod 24:9–11); Gideon (Judg 6:22; cf. 2:1); Manoah and his wife (Judg 13:22–23); Micaiah (1 Kgs 22:19); Amos (Amos 9:1); Isaiah (Isa 6:5); Ezekiel (Ezek 1:1–28); Job (Job 42:5); and Daniel (Dan 7:9–10).
9 While some scholars might see signs of a philosophical construal of transcendence behind Exod 24:9–11 LXX, the translators more frequently emphasize the sight of God in the Pentateuch. Genesis 16:13; 22:13; 31:13; and Exod 25:8 LXX clarify that someone did see God or introduce the concept where the Hebrew Vorlage may not have. Likewise, the priestly blessing (Num 6:24–27) becomes a plea for an epiphany in which God will manifest (ἐπιφάναι) his face. As Robert Hayward notes, something like this comes to pass after the blessing in Lev 9:22–24 in both the MT and LXX: the glory of the Lord appears; see his “Understanding of the Temple Service in the Septuagint Pentateuch,” in Temple and Worship in Biblical Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar (ed. John Day; LHBOTS 422; London: T&T Clark, 2004) 390–92. One should also note W. Barnes Tatum’s “The LXX Version of the Second Commandment (Ex. 20, 3-6 = Deut. 5, 7-10): A Polemic against Idols, not Images,” JSJ 17 (1986) 177–95 for the argument that the Second Commandment in the LXX is “anti-idolic, not anti-iconic” (178).
10 Prominent examples include 1 En. 14:15–25; 46–48, 62, 71; 2 En. 22:1–2; 39:4, 8; 3 En. 22B:5–6; T. Levi 3–5. Across the apocalyptic literature narrators balk at describing God once their protagonist attains the final level of heaven; but the sense is that an overwhelmingly and physically manifest visibility—one beyond description—is present. Such overwhelming physical visibility cuts against the otherwise complementary account in Philo of the soul’s noetic ascent to a spiritually radiant God. On seeing God in relation to John in the apocalyptic literature, see Catrin Williams’s “(Not) Seeing God in the Prologue and Body of John’s Gospel,” in The Prologue of the Gospel of John: Its Literary, Theological, and Philosophical Contexts: Papers Read at the Colloquium Ioanneum 2013 (ed. J. G. Van der Watt, Alan Culpepper, and Udo Schnelle; WUNT 1/359; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016) 79–98; idem, “Text and Experience: Reflections on ‘Seeing’ in the Gospel of John,” in The Study of Religious Experience: Approaches and Methodologies (ed. Bettina E. Schmidt; London: Equinox, 2016) 135–50. See also Benjamin Reynolds, “Apocalyptic Revelation in the Gospel of John,” in The Jewish Apocalyptic Tradition and the Shaping of the New Testament (ed. Benjamin Reynolds and Loren T. Stuckenbruck; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2017) 109–28.
11 For early Christian literature, see Rev 4:1–11; T. Isaac 6.27–28; T. Jac. 2.14–18; Apoc. Sedr. 2.3–5. See also Christoph Markschies, Gottes Körper. Jüdische, chrisliche und pagane Gottesvorstellungen in der Antike (Berlin: Beck, 2016).
12 As Rafael Neis has shown, cultivating the sight of God after the destruction of the temple was especially important to the Tannaim; see The Sense of Sight in Rabbinic Culture: Jewish Ways of Seeing in Late Antiquity (Greek Culture in the Ancient World; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013). Primary texts cited there regarding the sight of God include Mek. 1–2, 9; Gen. Rab. 65:0, 86:5; b. Sotah 30b–31a; m. Hag. 1.1–2l; Sipre Deut 143. See also Yair Lorberbaum’s detailed denial of Maimonides’s claim that “the doctrine of God’s corporeality never occurred to the sages, may their memory be blessed, for even a single day” (Guide for the Perplexed, 1.46) in his In God’s Image: Myth, Theology, and Law in Classical Judaism (trans. Michael Prawer; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015) 15–45, esp. 35.
13 The Hekhalot (“palaces/temples”) literature overlaps with Merkabah (“chariot”) mysticism and Shiur Koma (“measure of the stature)” literature as rabbinic (“mainstream” or otherwise) reflections on seeing God and measuring God’s body. These texts are aware of the danger of seeing God, but this is due to an overwhelming visibility. See Christopher Rowland and Christopher R. A. Morray-Jones, The Mystery of God: Early Jewish Mysticism and the New Testament (CRINT 12; Brill: Leiden, 2009). Primary texts adduced there regarding the Hekhalot and Merkabah include HekhZ and HekhR, while SKoma 47–63, SShiur 23–30, SRaziel 88–117, SidRBer 48–66, and MerkR 21–26 include measurements of the body of the Kavod on the throne and lists of secret names.
14 Even the Platonist authors describe the noetic realms in highly visual terms. The eyes of the soul perceive reality in the forms of colors, shapes, places, and light. See, e.g., Plutarch, Gen. Socr. 590A–592F and Philo, Opif. 69–71. In Plato, Tim. 29A–32D, Resp. 10 595A–598D, and Philo, Opif. 16–17 this world is somehow a copy or image of an invisible realm.
15 John may have had as much access to the Greek materialists as he did to the Middle Platonists. See Troels Engberg-Pedersen, John and Philosophy: A New Reading of the Fourth Gospel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), but see also Fergus J. King, Epicureanism and the Gospel of John: A Study of their Compatibility (WUNT 2/537; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020), in which King finds Epicureanism to be incompatible with John. It remains difficult to associate John with any one school. For a distinction of popular philosophy from the schools in contemporary literature, see Johan C. Thom, “Theology and Popular Philosophy,” in The Origins of New Testament Theology: A Dialogue with Hans Dieter Betz (ed. Rainer Hirsch-Luipold and Robert Mathew Calhoun; WUNT 1/440; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020) 119–126; idem, “Popular Philosophy in the Hellenistic-Roman World,” Early Christianity 3 (2012) 279–95.
16 Commentators who take aniconism for granted include J. Ramsay Michaels, The Gospel of John (NICNT; Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2010) 91, and Rudolf Schnackenburg, The Gospel according to St. John (trans. K. Smyth et al.; 3 vols.; HTCNT 4/1–3; New York: Crossroad, 1982) 1:278. But see Christoph Uehlinger, “Beyond ‘Image Ban’ and ‘Aniconism’: Reconfiguring Israelite and Early Jewish Religions in a Visual and Material Religion Perspective,” in Figurations and Sensations of the Unseen in Judaism, Christianity and Islam: Contested Desires (ed. Birgit Meyer and Terje Stordalen; Bloomsbury Studies in Material Religion; London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019) 99–123.
17 C. H. Dodd, Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953) 72; Schnackenburg, St. John, 1:278; Th. Korteweg, “The Reality of the Invisible: Some Remarks on St John XIV 8 and Greek Philosophical Tradition,” in Studies in Hellenistic Religions (ed. M. J. Vermaseren; Leiden: Brill, 1979) 59; George van Kooten, “The ‘True Light which Enlightens Everyone’ (John 1:9),” in The Creation of Heaven and Earth: Re-interpretations of Genesis 1 in the Context of Judaism, Ancient Philosophy, Christianity, and Modern Physics (ed. G. H. van Kooten; TBN 8; Leiden: Brill, 2005) 156–57; Panayotis Coutsoumpos, “The Difficulty of ΜΟΝΟΓεΝΗΣ ΘεΟΣ in John 1:18: A Reassessment,” Bib 98 (2017) 440. John Behr likewise integrates many of the tenets of classic theism across his challenging John the Theologian and His Paschal Gospel: A Prologue to Theology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019). One can also take note of the resurgence of “invisibility” as a divine attribute in Katherine Sonderegger’s Systematic Theology, vol. 1, The Doctrine of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2015) esp. 49–131; and Ian A. McFarland has also recently framed Chalcedonian orthodoxy in terms of (in)visibility and draws heavily on John to do this in his The Word Made Flesh: A Theology of the Incarnation (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2019).
18 See Jutta Leonhardt-Balzer, “Divine Manifestations in the Gospel of John,” in Epiphanies of the Divine in the Septuagint and the New Testament (ed. Roland Deines and Mark Wreford; WUNT 1; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, forthcoming 2024) 209–30. Leonhard-Balzer assumes that John 1:18 can only describe a divine transcendence that is intrinsically invisible in a way that precludes God’s visibility in Jesus. Drawing from Philo, she argues that John 1:14 refers to the visibility of the “Jewish God” rather than the “transcendent God.” Here, she follows Roukema, “Jesus and the Divine Name in the Gospel of John,” in The Revelation of the Name YHWH to Moses: Perspectives from Judaism, the Pagan Graeco-Roman World, and Early Christianity (ed. George van Kooten; TBN 9; Leiden: Brill, 2006) 207–23. Roukema also appears to assume that transcendence entails an absolute invisibility. However, it is not clear that one can approach John with preconceived notions of what “transcendence” means or what it entails regarding the nature of divine invisibility. Nor is it clear that John assumes the existence of a “Jewish God” and of a “transcendent God” as Leonhardt-Balzer and Roukema suggest.
19 Bultmann, John, 80–81; Craig Keener, The Gospel of John: A Commentary (2 vols.; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2003) 1:406–7, 423; Marianne Meye Thompson, The God of the Gospel of John (Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2001) 105; Birger Olsson, “Deus Semper Maior? On God in the Johannine Writings,” in New Readings in John: Literary and Theological Perspectives; Essays from the Scandinavian Conference on the Fourth Gospel in Århus 1997 (ed. Johannes Nissen and Sigfred Pedersen; trans. James Starr; JSNTSup 182; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999) 158–70. See also Rudolf Bultmann, “Untersuchungen zum Johannesevangelium,” ZNW 29 (1930) 169–92. In his “Between Jewish Monotheism and Proto-Trinitarian Relations: The Making and Character of Johannine Christology,” in Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity (ed. Matthew V. Novenson; NovTSup 180; Leiden: Brill, 2020) 189–221, Jörg Frey observes that “in John, there is no dualism between the immaterial and the material world, as in Philo. On the contrary, the Johannine Prologue is concerned with keeping these two together” (208). Yet Frey also describes the “fundamental invisibility” of the “God of Israel’s Scriptures,” the God John describes; see his “‘John within Judaism?’ Textual, Historical, and Hermeneutical Considerations,” in Jews and Christians – Parting Ways in the First Two Centuries CE? Reflections on the Gains and Losses of a Model (ed. Jens Schröter, Benjamin A. Edsall, and Joseph Verheyden; BZNW 253; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2021) 185–215. It is not entirely clear what Frey means by “fundamental.”
20 Rainer Hirsch-Luipold acknowledges this even as he dismisses it; see Gott wahrnehmen. Die Sinne im Johannesevangelium (Ratio Religionis Studien 4; WUNT 1/374; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017) 27–32.
21 After arguing that prepositional metaphysics aid Paul and John in distinguishing members of the godhead, Chris Kugler claims: “there is no evidence in the Gospel of John, Paul’s letters or the letter to the Hebrews that the early Christians included Jesus within their doctrine of creation so as to safeguard the transcendence of God the father, as though the latter’s superior ontology required a safe distance from the material kosmos.” See his “Judaism/Hellenism in Early Christology: Prepositional Metaphysics and Middle Platonic Intermediary Doctrine,” JSNT 43 (2020) 214–25, at 221. See also Christopher S. Atkins, “Rethinking John 1:1: The Word was Godward,” NovT 63 (2020) 44–62.
22 Apoc. Ab. 16–19 provides a good example of overlap between “invisible” and “unseen.” The Old Slavonic seems to have picked up the Greek alpha privatives like “invisible,” “incorporeal,” “incorruptible,” “immortal,” and “ungenerated” to describe a God who is also overwhelmingly visual and bright. God can be seen coming (16:3) but in a great sound (16:3), which is also fire (17:1); and Abraham is not allowed to look on God himself (16:4), but seemingly because God is overwhelming bright (17:19; 18:13). Abraham needs Iaoel’s help to bear the sight. Angels are described as invisible and incorporeal, yet their bodies also receive description (11:2–4), as does the heavenly chariot (18:13). See Andrei Orlov, Heavenly Priesthood in the Apocalypse of Abraham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) 46–53. T. Ab. 4:9–11 is also contradictory in Recension A. Angels are incorporeal, but Michael is visible as a man; however, he requires permission from God to eat and not “give away” his identity as incorporeal, so God sends a devouring spirit to keep up appearances. God himself is the “unseen Father” (16:3), although entities can stand in his presence. See also Ezek. Trag. 68–76, which describes God as a man seated on a throne atop Mt. Sinai and then describes Moses as unable to see God in the fire, even though Moses can perceive his shining words (96–103). Jacques T. A. G. M. van Ruiten thus appears to neglect 68–76 when he claims that God is invisible in Ezek. Trag. in ways that he is not in Exod 3:6; see his “A Burning Bush on the Stage: The Rewriting of Exodus 3:1–4:17 in Ezekiel Tragicus, Exagoge 90–131,” in Revelation of the Name YHWH (ed. van Kooten) 71–88. In Apoc. Mos. 35:3 God is ἀόρατος; but in 37:4 he is sitting on a throne and stretching out a hand to receive Adam. Indeed, in spite of his assertions regarding God’s invisibility, Josephus himself describes God as possessing a “form (μορφή)” and “magnitude (μέγεθος)” that “surpass our powers of description” (Ag. Ap. 2.190–91), of which Markus Bockmuehl notes: “he clearly has a μορφή but it is not accessible to humans” (“‘The Form of God’ (Phil. 2:6): Variations on a Theme of Jewish Mysticism,” JTS 48 [1997] 1–23, at 15).
23 Giulea, “The Noetic Turn,” 23–57; Scott Mackie, “Seeing God in Philo of Alexandria: Means, Methods, and Mysticism,” JSJ 43 (2012) 147–79; idem, “Seeing God in Philo of Alexandria: The Logos, The Powers, or the Existent One?,” SPhilo 21 (2009) 35–47; Deborah Forger, “Divine Embodiment in Philo of Alexandria,” JSJ 49 (2018) 223–62. Space forbids a longer study of what one might call a “development of doctrine” regarding the shift from notions of a corporeal form of God to an immaterial one; and I refer the reader to Giulea’s Pre-Nicene Christology in Paschal Contexts: The Case of the Divine Noetic Anthropos (VCSup 123. Leiden: Brill, 2015) and “Simplicores, Eruditi, and the Noetic Form of God: Pre-Nicene Christology Revisited,” HTR 108 (2015) 263–88. For now, one should note that both Giulea and Mackie rightly observe that not even in Clement of Alexandria or in Philo is it clear that the noetic realm is perfectly immaterial or that seeing God lacks some level of materiality. It has effects on human bodies, and Philo cannot resist using terms like “light” to describe it. Philo even goes so far as to suggest that God himself might have appeared in the burning bush to Moses with “a most beautiful form (μορφή)” (Mos. 1.66). While Philo has embraced Platonism, his own portrayal of God falls somewhere between “invisible” and “unseen,” even if it is much closer to “invisible.” Forger argues that God could unite himself with bodies, even according to Philo, via νοῦς; this is a common feature of Middle Platonism and hard to reconcile fully with the notion of a corporeal God as described in the Jewish Scriptures and in many of the texts of Early Judaism. See George Boy-Stones on the (very sheer) materiality of the soul as a vehicle for νοῦς in Middle Platonism in Platonist Philosophy 80 BC to AD 250: An Introduction and Collection of Sources in Translation (Cambridge Source Books in Post-Hellenistic Philosophy; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018) 253–55, 276.
24 For the sake of space, I list recent monographs that include physical proximity to god(s) and seeing god(s) as being at the heart of the religions and philosophies I mention above. For ancient Near Eastern approaches to the physical presence of gods among humans and theological anthropology, see Tyson Putthoff, Gods and Humans in the Ancient Near East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), and Michael Dick, “The Mesopotamian Cult Statue,” in Cult Image and Divine Representation in the Ancient Near East (ed. N. H. Walls; American Schools of Oriental Research: Boston, 2005) 43–67. On the nature and importance of theophany in Israel, see Sommer, The Bodies of God; Esther J. Hamori, When Gods Were Men (BZAW 384; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008); Mark Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). On the nature and cultivation of epiphany in Greco-Roman polytheism, see Verity Platt, Facing the Gods: Epiphany and Representation in Graeco-Roman Art, Literature and Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), and Georgia Petridou, Divine Epiphany in Greek Literature and Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). For the sight of the forms and, potentially, of God as the goal of Platonism, see Boy-Stones, Platonist Philosophy, 367–75. For seeing God in the New Testament, see Brittany Wilson, The Embodied God: Seeing the Divine in Luke-Acts and the Early Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), and J. M. F Heath, Paul’s Visual Piety: The Metamorphosis of the Beholder (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). For an account of Neoplatonist and patristic approaches to the beatific vision, see Hans Boersma, Seeing God: The Beatific Vision in Christian Tradition (Cambridge: Eerdmans: 2018). For the sight of God in early Judaism, see Mackie, “Means, Methods, and Mysticism”; idem, “The Logos, The Powers, or the Existent One?”; and Rowland and Morray-Jones, Mystery of God. For seeing God in the rabbis, see Neis, Sense of Sight, 41–81, and Lorberbaum, God’s Image, 15–45. See also Eliot R. Wolfson, Through a Speculum That Shines: Vision and Imagination in Medieval Jewish Mysticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), and Martin Goodman, “The Jewish Image of God in Late Antiquity,” in Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays (Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity 67; Brill: Leiden, 2007) 205–18.
25 Seeing the God: Ways of Envisioning the Divine in Ancient Mediterranean Religion (ed. Jeffrey B. Pettis; Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias, 2013); Seeing the God: Image, Space, Performance, and Vision in the Religion of the Roman Empire (ed. Marilis Arnhold, Harry O. Maier, and Jörg Rüpke; Culture, Religion, and Politics in the Greco-Roman World 2; Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 2018).
26 Marianne Meye Thompson, “‘God’s Voice You Have Never Heard, God’s Form You Have Never Seen’: The Characterization of God in the Gospel of John,” Semeia 63 (1993) 177–204; eadem, The God, 101–43.
27 For a related argument, see Ole Jakob Filtvedt, “Seeing and Hearing God: On the Relationship between John 5:37 and Deut 4:12,” DTT 5 (2016) 308–23; idem, “The Transcendence and Visibility of the Father in the Gospel of John,” ZNW 108 (2017) 90–118. In both articles, Filtvedt argues that God has visually revealed himself in Jesus in unprecedented ways: “1,18 is not meant to negate or limit the degree to which God is seen in Christ, but only apart from Jesus” (“Transcendence and Visibility,” 99).
28 For a summary of what continues to be a consensus, see A. T. Hanson, “John 1:14–18 and Exodus 34,” NTS 23 (1976) 90–101.
29 Many commentators agree that the external evidence is in favor of “only God.” See Coutsoumpos, “The Difficulty,” 435–46; Benjamin J. Burkholder, “Considering the Possibility of a Theological Corruption in Joh 1,18 in Light of Its Early Reception,” ZNW 103 (2012) 64–83; and D. A. Fennema, “John 1.18: ‘God the only Son,’” NTS 31 (1985) 124–35.
30 Marianne Meye Thompson qualifies how directly God is actually available to human sight in Jesus; see her “Jesus: ‘The One Who Sees God,’” in Israel’s God and Rebecca’s Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity: Essays in Honor of Larry W. Hurtado and Alan F. Segal (ed. David B. Capes et al.; Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007) 218.
31 The Beloved Disciple reclines on Jesus’s κόλπος (13:23), and the Farewell Discourse will essentially explain what that means.
32 Even Roukema, who identifies Jesus with the Kyrios-YHWH of OT theophany and the Father with the invisible “Most High God” admits—on the basis of John 12:45 and 14:9—that “in spite of God’s essential invisibility, it appears to be possible to see God, that is, to see him in the person of Jesus, in whom the Logos and Kyrios was incarnated.” If this is true, then Roukema must further admit that the Father’s invisibility is not “essential.” By the conclusion of his essay, he acknowledges that, despite their distinguishing characteristics—among which he has included invisibility— “God the Father” and “Jesus the Kyrios” possess a fundamental unity; but this ultimately suggests that an intrinsic or essential invisibility could not be one of those characteristics. See Roukema, “Jesus and the Divine Name,” 218–23.
33 Hans Weder notes that “there is no remnant concealed in God that would not encounter the world in the Logos. This means, further, that it is not merely a particular aspect or part of God that has become flesh in the incarnation”; see his “Deus Incarnatus: On the Hermeneutics of Christology in the Johannine Writings,” in Exploring the Gospel of John: In Honor of D. Moody Smith (ed. R. Alan Culpepper and C. Clifton Black; trans. Douglas W. Stott; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996) 331. See also Filtvedt, “Transcendence and Visibility,” 94.
34 Oscar Cullmann, “εἶδεν καὶ ἐπίστευσεν. La vie de Jésus, object de la ‘vue’ et de la ‘foi’, d’après le quatrième Evangile,” in Aux sources de la Tradition chrétienne. Mélanges offerts à M. Maurice Goguel à l’occasion de son soixante-dixième anniversaire (ed. Oscar Cullmann and P. Menoud; Neuchâtel: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1950) 52–61; G. L. Philips, “Faith and Vision in the Fourth Gospel,” in Studies in the Fourth Gospel (ed. F. L. Cross; London: Mowbray, 1957) 83–96; Cornelio Traets, Voir Jésus et le Père en lui, selon l’èvangile de Saint Jean (Analecta Gregoriana 159; Rome: Gregorian University, 1967); Clemens Hergenröder, Wir schauten seine Herrlichkeit. Das johanneishce Sprechen vom Sehen im Horizont von Selbsterschliessung Jesu und Antwort des Menschen (FB 80; Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1996) 45–214. The consistency of ὁράω to describe the sight of God in John should be read alongside its long association with perceiving divinity.
35 Compared to Philo of Alexandria’s laborious distinctions in the case of theophanies, John makes no effort to qualify what he means. See, e.g., Leg. 3.7–10, 51, 100–101; Abr. 114–32, 142–46; Mos. 1.158–59.
36 While many of the authors I have cited attempt to find such a distinction in John’s choice of verbs, with the important exception of Oscar Cullmann, that hierarchy is difficult to maintain. More recently, Richard Bauckham, “The Fourth Gospel as the Testimony of the Beloved Disciple,” in The Gospel of John and Christian Theology (ed. Richard Bauckham and Carl Mosser; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008) 136, and Ruth Sheridan, The Figure of Abraham in John 8: Text and Intertext (LNTS 619; London: Bloomsbury, 2020) 354–56, have rightly questioned it.
37 Gary A. Anderson, “Towards a Theology of the Tabernacle and Its Furniture,” in Text, Thought, and Practice in Qumran and Early Christianity (ed. Ruth A. Clements and Daniel R. Schwartz; Leiden: Brill, 2009) 161–94.
38 Williams, “(Not) Seeing God,” 80; Reynolds, “Apocalyptic Revelation,” 116; Hanson, “John 1:14,” 95; Paul Miller, “‘They Saw His Glory and Spoke of Him’: The Gospel of John and the Old Testament,” in Hearing the Old Testament in the New Testament (ed. Stanley E. Porter; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006) 127–51.
39 A. J. Droge reads John to be intentionally undermining the Jewish Scriptures in his “‘No One Has Ever Seen God’: Revisionary Criticism in the Fourth Gospel,” in From Prophecy to Testament: The Function of the Old Testament in the New (ed. Craig A. Evans; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004) 174.
40 For further discussions of the theophanic experiences of Abraham, Isaiah, Zechariah, and Moses, see Sheridan, The Figure of Abraham, esp. 353–55; Catrin Williams, “Patriarchs and Prophets Remembered: Framing Israel’s Past in the Gospel of John,” in Abiding Words: The Use of Scripture in the Gospel of John (ed. Alicia D. Myers; Atlanta: SBL Press, 2015) 187–212; William Randolph Bynum, The Fourth Gospel and the Scriptures: Illuminating the Form and Meaning of Scriptural Citation in John 19:37 (NovTSup 144; Leiden: Brill, 2012).
41 In the following argument, I draw heavily from Catrin Williams’ “Seeing the Glory: The Reception of Isaiah’s Call-Vision in Jn 12.41,” in Judaism, Jewish Identities and the Gospel Tradition: Essays in Honour of Maurice Casey (ed. James G. Crossley; London: Routledge, 2014) 186–206; and eadem, “Johannine Christology and Prophetic Traditions: The Case of Isaiah,” in Reading the Gospel of John’s Christology as Jewish Messianism: Royal, Prophetic, and Divine Messiahs (ed. Benjamin E. Reynolds and Gabriele Boccaccini; AJEC 106; Leiden: Brill) 92–123.
42 By virtue of his presence on such a throne, one may also assume that the Lord himself is exalted. Here I also wish to draw attention to the long-standing emphasis in Johannine scholarship that the crucifixion is itself a kind of enthronement, as Deolito V. Vistar, Jr., The Cross-and-Resurrection: The Supreme Sign in John’s Gospel (WUNT 2/508; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020) 199–202, has recently noted. One can also observe the garden location of the crucifixion in John and the presence God’s throne near the Tree of Life in the garden settings of 1 En. 24:4, 25:3–5, and Apoc. Mos. 22:4. A number of early Christians associated the cross with the Tree of Life (e.g., Cave of Treasures) and read against these texts and the pseudepigrapha, John’s account of a garden crucifixion-enthronement hints at the possible conflation of cross, Tree of Life, and divine throne in his thought.
43 See Daniel J. Brendsel, “Isaiah Saw His Glory”: The Use of Isaiah 52–53 in John 12 (BZNW 208; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014) 124–27, for a detailed defence of ταῦτα as referring to both quotations and αὐτοῦ as referring to Jesus.
44 Debate continues about which glory Isaiah saw: that of the preexistent Logos or the future glory of Jesus in his earthly life. In my view, John is concerned to draw the glories together, and the reader is not left to distinguish between two objects of sight. The challenge of the crucifixion is that the heavenly glory of God and that of the Logos are manifested on the cross; and the quotations suggest this by drawing the servant, God, and Jesus together in the context of John 12, Isa 6:1, and 52:13–53:12. See Williams, “Seeing the Glory,” 186–206; eadem, “Composite Citations in the Gospel of John,” 94–127; Jonathan Lett, “The Divine Identity of Jesus as the Reason for Israel’s Unbelief in John 12:36–43,” JBL (2016) 159–73; Brendsel, “Isaiah Saw His Glory,” 130–31; Bucur, Scripture Re-envisioned, 190.
45 Roukema argues that John does not say that Isaiah saw God, but only his glory, which leads Roukema to suggest that John is shifting Isaiah’s vision away from a direct theophany; see “Jesus and the Divine Name,” 209. This is a fair point, but it is also highly ambiguous, given the number of times that seeing God’s glory is itself tantamount to seeing God in the Jewish Scriptures. Sommer has gone so far as to describe the glory cloud as one of God’s bodies in The Bodies, 38–57.
46 Frey’s conclusions in “Jewish Monotheism,” 211 about the deity of the Johannine Jesus are worth quoting in full: “Johannine Christology is consistent in claiming that this earthly Jesus, the Messiah and King of Israel, who died on the cross, was actually a divine being, uncreated, and “God,” so that in his words, acts, and passion, he uniquely represents and reveals the one God of Israel, the God of the Scriptures.”
47 As Filtvedt, “Transcendence,” 110 notes: “In seeing Jesus, one does not see something that merely resembles God, a manifestation that replaces the vision of God, or some divine attribute. God does not remain partly hidden behind his visible manifestation in Jesus. Although the vision of God in Jesus is mediated, it is not limited or partial . . . it is evident that this full vision of God is tied to Jesus’ signs, his passion and his departure.”
48 Hanson, “John 1:14,” 96.
49 “Overlap” is intentionally ambiguous and, perhaps, necessarily so, given the burgeoning discussion of Jesus’s relationship to God. See the collected essays in Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity (ed. Mathew V. Novenson; NovTSup 180; Leiden: Brill, 2020).
50 This does not reduce the incarnation to another theophany; rather, it shows that the precedent exists in the Jewish Scriptures. See Sommer, The Bodies, 122, 124–44; Michael Wyschogrod, “A Jewish Perspective on Incarnation,” Modern Theology (1996) 195–209; Hamori, When Gods Were Men, esp. 64; eadem, “Divine Embodiment in the Jewish Scriptures and Its Implications for Jewish and Christian Incarnational Theology,” in Bodies, Embodiment, and Theology of the Hebrew Bible (ed. S. Tamar Kamionkowski and Wonil Kim; LHBOTS 465; London: T&T Clark, 2010) 161–83.
51 Here I come very close to the view of Charles A. Gieschen, whose exemplary work (e.g., Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence [AGJU 42; Leiden: Brill, 1998] and “The YHWH Christology of the Gospel of John,” CTQ 85 [2020] 3–22), acknowledges the importance of divine (in)visibility. Nevertheless, because Gieschen takes God to be invisible (a term that, to the best of my knowledge, he never defines), he has tended to read John as projecting Christ back onto the theophanies as the only option for a manifestation of God. I am less certain that such clear-cut assumptions about visibility are tenable. By contrast, I find much to agree with in Christopher Barina Kaiser’s claim in Seeing the Lord’s Glory: Kyriocentric Visions and the Dilemma of Early Christology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2014) 9 that “the disciples did not see Jesus as YHWH (as most often stated). Instead, they saw YHWH (the Lord in embodied form) as Jesus. The ability to recognize Jesus as the visible YHWH is “based on the continued appearance of the God of Israel ‘from behind,’ that is, as an extension of the history of his covenant relations with Israel” (9). Insofar as I understand him, I take Kaiser to mean that the NT authors, John among them, did not project Jesus back onto the theophanies, but read the incarnation as the culminating visibility of a God who had manifested himself visually over the course of the Jewish Scriptures and texts of Early Judaism.
52 This is not to deny that metaphysics and ontology are somehow absent from John’s account; it is simply to recognize that in his account they may not be especially Platonic. Until Augustine and Jerome, the most prevalent view seems to have been that Jesus was eternally visible as the Son. For the economic theologians, Jesus’s eternal visibility explained the incarnation and the theophanies without compromising the transcendence of the Father. Augustine will show that this view compromises the transcendence of the Son and will introduce the highly influential position that divinity (whether in the Father or Jesus) is always invisible until after the last judgment. The power of these theological interpretations continues to inform the presuppositions of Johannine scholarship. See Kari Kloos, “Seeing the Invisible God: Augustine’s Reconfiguration of Theophany Narrative Exegesis,” Augustinian Studies 36 (2005) 397–420; eadem, Christ, Creation, and the Vision of God: Augustine’s Transformation of Early Christian Theophany Interpretation (ed. Jeffrey Bingham; The Bible in Ancient Christianity 7; Leiden: Brill, 2011).
53 See Thompson, God of the Gospel, 17–55; Chrys C. Caragounis and Jan Van der Watt, “A Grammatical Analysis of John 1:1,” Filogía Neotestamentaria 21 (2008) 91–138; Van der Watt, “He Was with God and was God?,” STJ 4 (2018) 283–302.
54 See LSJ, s.v. “πώποτε” and BDAG, s.v. “πώποτε,” which states that πώποτε “refers to an indefinite point of time: ever, at any time.” BDAG further notes that πώποτε almost always occurs with verbs in the past tense. Elizabeth Harris registers the emphasis that πώποτε lends to John’s statement, and she defines it as “a temporal reference to human capacities in time and history. This is underlined by the perfect tense of the verb, which is also in contrast to the eternal quality of the μονογενὴς θεός (ὑιός), being (ὁ ὦν) in the bosom of the Father” in Prologue and Gospel: The Theology of the Fourth Evangelist (JSNTSup 107; London: T&T Clark, 1994) 93.
55 Regarding the perfect “has seen” (ἑώρακεν), Harris notes Moulton’s description of it as an aoristic perfect, acknowledging that there can be perfects of broken as well as of unbroken continuity, especially in the company of “ever” (πώποτε). See A Grammar of New Testament Greek (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1906) 144. On the implications of aspect theory for the perfect tense in John, see Madison Pierce and Benjamin Reynolds, “The Perfect Tense-Form and the Son of Man in John 3.13: Developments in Greek Grammar as a Viable Solution to the Timing of the Ascent and Descent,” NTS 60 (2014) 149–55.
56 While Harris, Prologue, 100–101, acknowledges that John 6:46 and 14:9 indicate that the incarnation could offer “a ‘vision of God’ strictly without exact parallel,” she concludes that “the emphatic use of πώποτε in 1.18 may be doing more than affirming that in history prior to the coming of the Logos, Jesus Christ, no one had in fact seen God. If that were all that were intended, it would have been sufficient to say, ‘No one has ever seen God as yet (οὐκέτι) but now the man Jesus Christ is the one who has seen him.”
57 See Behr, John the Theologian, 245–70.
58 Among others, Frey acknowledge that John shows the crucifixion itself to be a manifestation of God’s glory; see The Glory of the Crucified One: Christology and Theology in the Gospel of John (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2018) 284.
59 See Filtvedt, “Transcendence,” 112–18.
60 Here I am largely in agreement with Bultmann, John, 80: “the assertion, however, that God is not directly accessible has nothing to do with the Greek idea that God is a being of such a kind that he cannot be grasped by the senses. . . . For the Evangelist it is not the νοῦς but πίστις which sees him, and then only πίστις which is directed toward the Revealer.” Unlike Bultmann, I would emphasize the positive relationship of sight to belief.