Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-2mk96 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-09T22:34:59.902Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Externalizing symptoms, effortful control, and intrusive parenting: A test of bidirectional longitudinal relations during early childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2015

Nancy Eisenberg ,
Zoe E. Taylor ,
Keith F. Widaman  and
Tracy L. Spinrad
Nancy Eisenberg*
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Zoe E. Taylor
Affiliation:
Purdue University
Keith F. Widaman
Affiliation:
University of California, Riverside
Tracy L. Spinrad
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Nancy Eisenberg, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1004; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

At approximately 30, 42, and 54 months of age (N = 231), the relations among children's externalizing symptoms, intrusive maternal parenting, and children's effortful control (EC) were examined. Both intrusive parenting and low EC have been related to psychopathology, but children's externalizing problems and low EC might affect the quality of parenting and one another. Mothers’ intrusive behavior with their children was assessed with observations, children's EC was measured with mothers’ and caregivers’ reports, and children's externalizing symptoms were assessed with mothers’, fathers’, and caregivers’ reports. In a structural equation panel model, bidirectional relations between intrusive parenting and EC were found: EC at 30 and 42 months predicted low levels of intrusive parenting a year later, controlling for prior levels of parenting and vice versa. Moreover, high levels of children's externalizing problems at both 30 and 42 months negatively predicted EC a year later, controlling for prior levels of EC. Although externalizing problems positively predicted high EC over time, this appeared to be a suppression effect because these variables had a strong negative pattern in the zero-order correlations. Moreover, when controlling for the stability of intrusive parenting, EC, and externalizing (all exhibited significant stability across time) and the aforementioned cross-lagged predictive paths, EC and externalizing problems were still negatively related within the 54-month assessment. The findings are consistent with the view that children's externalizing behavior undermines their EC and contributes to intrusive mothering and that relations between intrusive parenting and EC are bidirectional across time. Thus, interventions that focus on modifying children's externalizing problems (as well as the quality of parenting) might affect the quality of parenting they receive and, hence, subsequent problems with adjustment.

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 27 , Issue 4pt1 , November 2015 , pp. 953 - 968
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353–359. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00366 Google Scholar
Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In Marcoulides, G. A. & Schumacker, R. E. (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques (pp. 243–277). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Barnett, M. A., Shanahan, L., Deng, M., Haskett, M. E., & Cox, M. J. (2010). Independent and interactive contributions of parenting behaviors and beliefs in the prediction of early childhood behavior problems. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10, 43–59. doi:10.1080/15295190903014604 Google Scholar
Bell, R. Q., & Chapman, M. (1986). Child effects in studies using experimental or brief longitudinal approaches to socialization. Developmental Psychology, 22, 595–603. doi:10.1037%2F%2F0012–1649.22.5.595 Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 619–626. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02327.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Fearon, P. R. M., & Bell, B. (2007). Parenting, attention and externalizing problems: Testing mediation longitudinally, repeatedly and reciprocally. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1233–1242. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01807.x Google Scholar
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indices in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238 Google Scholar
Bentler, P. M., & Bonnett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of variance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588 Google Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., et al. (2011). Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood. Child Development, 82, 1970–1984. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01643.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bridgett, D. J., Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., McKay, T., Iddins, E., Robertson, C., et al. (2009). Maternal and contextual influences and the effect of temperament development during infancy on parenting in toddlerhood. Infant Behavior and Development, 32, 103–116. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.10.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Briggs-Gowan, M., & Carter, A. S. (1998). Preliminary acceptability and psychometrics of the infant-toddler social and emotional assessment (ITSEA): A new adult-report questionnaire. Infant Mental Health Journal, 19, 422–445. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0355(199824)19:4<422::AID-IMHJ5>3.0.CO;2-Google Scholar
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2001, June 13). Infant Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA) manual. Version 1.1. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Browne, M. W. & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen, K. A. & Long, J. S. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Cabrera, N. J., Shannon, J. D., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2007). Fathers’ influence on their children's cognitive and emotional development: From toddlers to pre-K. Applied Developmental Science, 11, 208–213. doi:10.1080/10888690701762100 Google Scholar
Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 467–488. doi:10.1017/S0954579400003114 Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 595–616. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2802_3 Google Scholar
Carter, A. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. (1999). The Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA). Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Carter, A. S. & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2006). ITSEA: Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment. Examiner's manual. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.Google Scholar
Carter, A. S., Briggs-Gowan, M., Jones, S. M., & Little, T. D. (2003). The Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 495–514. doi:10.1023/A:1025449031360 Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Shiner, R. L. (2006). Personality development. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 300–365). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Chang, H., Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., & Sexton, H. R. (2011). Child effortful control as a mediator of parenting practices on externalizing behavior: Evidence for a sex-differentiated pathway across the transition from preschool to school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 71–81. doi:/10.1007/s10802-010-9437-7 Google Scholar
Choe, D. E., Olson, S. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2013a). Effects of early maternal distress and parenting on the development of children's self-regulation and externalizing behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 437–453. doi:10.1017/S0954579412001162 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choe, D. E., Olson, S. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2013b). The interplay of externalizing problems and physical and inductive discipline during childhood. Developmental Psychology, 49, 2029–2039. doi:10.1037/a0032054 Google Scholar
Crockenberg, S. C., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004). Infant and maternal behaviors regulate infant reactivity to novelty at 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1123–1132. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1123 Google Scholar
Crockenberg, S. C., Leerkes, E. M., & Jó, P. S. B. (2008). Predicting aggressive behavior in the third year from infant reactivity and regulation as moderated by maternal behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 37–54. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000023 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curran, P. J., & Husong, A. M. (2009). Integrative data analysis: The simultaneous analysis of multiple data sets. Psychological Methods, 14, 81–100.Google Scholar
Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225–236. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.225 Google Scholar
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1988). Arousal, affect, and attention as components of temperament. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 958–966. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.6.958 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. (1990). Developmental time course in human infants and infant monkeys, and the neural bases of, inhibitory control in reaching. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 608, 637–676. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb48913.x Google Scholar
Eiden, R. D., Colder, C., Edwards, E. P., & Leonard, K. E. (2009). A longitudinal study of social competence among children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents: Role of parental psychopathology, parental warmth, and self-regulation. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 36–46. doi:10.1037/a0014839 Google Scholar
Eiden, R. D., Edwards, E. P., & Leonard, K. E. (2007). A conceptual model for the development of externalizing behavior problems among kindergarten children of alcoholic families: Role of parenting and children's self-regulation. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1187–1201. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.5.1187 Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1 Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Nyman, M., Bernzweig, J., & Pinuelas, A. (1994). The relations of emotionality and regulation to children's anger-related reactions. Child Development, 65, 109–128. doi:10.2302317/1131369 Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., & Reiser, M. (1999). Parental reactions to children's negative emotions: Longitudinal relations to quality of children's social functioning. Child Development, 70, 513–534. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00037 Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Sulik, M., & Spinrad, T. L. (2014). Effortful control and its socioemotional consequences. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 157–172). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Eggum, N. D. (2010). Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 495–525. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208 Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D, Silva, K., Reiser, M., Hofer, C., et al. (2010). Relations among maternal socialization, effortful control, and maladjustment in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 507–525. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000246 Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Vidmar, M., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., Edwards, A., Gaertner, B., et al. (2010). Mothers’ teaching strategies and children's effortful control: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1294–1308. doi:10.1037/a0020236 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Zhou, Q., Spinrad, T. L., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., & Liew, J. (2005). Relations among positive parenting, children's effortful control, and externalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study. Child Development, 76, 1055–1071.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00897.xGoogle Scholar
Eisner, M. P., & Malti, T. (2015). The development of aggressive behavior and violence. In Lerner, R. (Series Ed.) & Lamb, M. E. (Vol. Ed.), The handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 3. Social and emotional development (7th ed., pp. 794–841). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Else-Quest, N., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33 Google Scholar
Erber, R., & Tesser, A. (1992). Task effort and the regulation of mood: The absorption hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 339. doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(92)90050-T Google Scholar
Eronen, S., Nurmi, J., & Salmela-Aro, K. (1997). Planning-oriented, avoidant, and impulsive social reaction styles: A person-oriented approach. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 34–57. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1997.2169 Google Scholar
Feldman, R. (2007). Maternal versus child risk and the development of parent–child and family relationships in five high-risk populations. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 293–312. doi:doi.org/10.1159/000102392 Google Scholar
Feldman, R., Dollberg, D., & Nadam, R. (2011). The expression and regulation of anger in toddlers: Relations to maternal behavior and mental representations. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 310–320. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.02.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fish, M., Stifter, C. A., & Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in infant negative emotionality: Newborn to five months. Child Development, 62, 1525–1537. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01623.x Google Scholar
Gilliom, M., & Shaw, D. S. (2004). Codevelopment of externalizing and internalizing problems in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 313–333. doi:10.1017/S0954579404044530 Google Scholar
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D. S., Beck, J. E., Schonberg, M. A., & Lukon, J. L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 38, 222–235. doi:/10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.222 Google Scholar
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-emotion: How families communicate emotionally. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Graziano, P. A., Keane, S. P., & Calkins, S. D. (2010). Maternal behaviour and children's early emotion regulation skills differentially predict development of children's reactive control and later effortful control. Infant and Child Development, 19, 333–353. doi:10.1002/icd.670 Google Scholar
Gustafsson, H. C., Cox, M. J., & Blair, C. (2012). Maternal parenting as a mediator of the relationship between intimate partner violence and effortful control. Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 115–123. doi:10.1037/a0026283 Google Scholar
Harman, C., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (1997). Distress and attention interactions in early infancy. Motivation and Emotion, 21, 27–43.Google Scholar
Hofer, C., Eisenberg, N., & Reiser, M. (2010). The role of socialization, effortful control, and ego resiliency in French adolescents’ social functioning. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 555–582. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00650.xGoogle Scholar
Hofer, S. M., & Piccinin, A. M. (2009). Integrative data analysis through coordination of measurement and analysis protocol across independent longitudinal studies. Psychological Methods, 14, 150–164. doi:10.1037/a0015566 Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Karreman, A., van Tuijl, C., van Aken, Marcel A. G., & Dekovic, M. (2006). Parenting and self-regulation in preschoolers: A meta-analysis. Infant and Child Development, 15, 561–579. doi:10.1002/icd.478 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keenan, K., Shaw, D., Delliquadri, E., Giovannelli, J., & Walsh, B. (1998). Evidence for the continuity of early problem behaviors: Application of a developmental model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 441.Google Scholar
Keown, L. J. (2012). Predictors of boys’ ADHD symptoms from early to middle childhood: The role of father-child and mother-child interactions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 569–581. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9586-3 Google Scholar
Kieras, J. E., Tobin, R. M., Graziano, W. G., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005). You can't always get what you want: Effortful control and children's responses to undesirable gifts. Psychological Science, 16, 391–396. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01546.x Google Scholar
Kim, S., & Brody, G. H. (2005). Longitudinal pathways to psychological adjustment among black youth living in single-parent households. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 305–313. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.305 Google Scholar
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Barry, R. A., Aksan, N., & Boldt, L. J. (2008). A developmental model of maternal and child contributions to disruptive conduct: The first six years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1220–1227. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01932 Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., & Kim, S. (2013). A complex interplay among the parent-child relationship, effortful control, and internalized, rule-compatible conduct in young children: Evidence from two studies. Developmental Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/a0032330 Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Kim, S., Boldt, L. J., & Yoon, J. E. (2013). Children's callous-unemotional traits moderate links between their positive relationships with parents at preschool age and externalizing behavior problems at early school age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1251–1260. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12084 Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.36.2.220 Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Philibert, R. A., & Barry, R. A. (2009). Interplay of genes and early mother-child relationship in the development of self-regulation from toddler to preschool age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1331–1338. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02050.xGoogle Scholar
Kopp, C. B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25, 343–354. doi 10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.343Google Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., Blankson, A. N., & O'Brien, M. (2009). Differential effects of maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress on social-emotional functioning. Child Development, 80, 762–775. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01296.x Google Scholar
Lemery-Chalfant, K., Doelger, L., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2008). Genetic relations between effortful and attentional control and symptoms of psychopathology in middle childhood. Infant and Child Development, 17, 365–385. doi:10.1002/icd.581 Google Scholar
Lengua, L. J., & Kovacs, E. A. (2005). Bidirectional associations between temperament and parenting and the prediction of adjustment problems in middle childhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 21–38. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2004.10.001 Google Scholar
Mezzacappa, E. (2004). Alerting, orienting, and executive attention: Developmental properties and sociodemographic correlates in an epidemiological sample of young, urban children. Child Development, 75, 1373–1386. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00746.x Google Scholar
Minde, K. (2000). Prematurity and serious medical conditions in infancy: Implications for development, behavior, and intervention. In Zeanah, C. H. (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (pp. 176–194). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moses, E. B., & Barlow, D. H. (2006). A new unified treatment approach for emotional disorders based on emotion science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 146–150. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00425.x Google Scholar
Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503–514. doi:10.1023/A:1019821031523 Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., Kerr, D. C., Lopez, N. L., & Wellman, H. M. (2005). Developmental foundations of externalizing problems in young children: The role of effortful control. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 25–45. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050029 Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Pener-Tessler, R., Ivinun, R., Uzefovsky, F., Edelman, S., Ebstein, R. P., & Knafo, A. (2013). Boys’ serotonin transporter genotype affects maternal behavior through self-control: A case of evocative gene–environment correlation. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 151–162. doi:10.1017/S095457941200096X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Popp, T. K., Spinrad, T. L., & Smith, C. L. (2008). The relation of cumulative demographic risk to mothers’ responsivity and control: Examining the role of toddler temperament. Infancy, 13, 496–518. doi:10.1080/15250000802329446 Google Scholar
Power, T. G. (2004). Stress and coping in childhood: The parents’ role. Parenting: Science and Practice, 4, 271–317. doi:10.1207/s15327922par0404_1 Google Scholar
Propper, C., Willoughby, M., Halpern, C. T., Carbone, M. A., & Cox, M. (2007). Parenting quality, DRD4, and the prediction of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood. Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 619–632. doi:10.1002/dev.20249v Google Scholar
Putnam, S. P., Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2006). Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development, 29, 386–401. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2006.01.004 Google Scholar
Putnam, S. P., Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2008). Homotypic and heterotypic continuity of fine-grained temperament during infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood. Infant and Child Development, 17, 387–405. doi:10.1002/ICD.582 Google Scholar
Putnam, S. P., & Stifter, C. A. (2002). Development of approach and inhibition in the first year: Parallel findings from motor behavior, temperament ratings and directional cardiac response. Developmental Science, 5, 441–451. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00239 Google Scholar
Raaijmakers, M. A. J., Smidts, D. P., Sergeant, J. A., Maassen, G. H., Posthumus, J. A., Engeland, H., et al. (2008). Executive functions in preschool children with aggressive behavior: Impairments in inhibitory control. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1097–1107. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9235–7 Google Scholar
Reed, M. A., Pien, D. L., & Rothbart, M. K. (1984). Inhibitory self-control in preschool children. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 30, 131–147.Google Scholar
Reising, M. M., Watson, K. H., Hardcastle, E. J., Merchant, M. J., Roberts, L., Forehand, R., et al. (2013). Parental depression and economic disadvantage: The role of parenting in associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children and adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 335–343. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9582-4 Google Scholar
Roben, C. K. P., Cole, P. M., & Armstrong, L. M. (2013). Longitudinal relations among language skills, anger expression, and regulatory strategies in early childhood. Child Development, 84, 891–905. doi:10.1111/cdev.12027 Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Child Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00355 Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 105–176). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ziaie, H., & O'Boyle, C. G. (1992). Self-regulation and emotion in infancy. In Eisenberg, N. & Fabes, R. A. (Eds.), Emotion and its regulation in early development: Vol. 55. New Directions for Child Development (pp. 7–23). San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Ruff, H. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (1996). Attention in early development: Themes and variations. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rydell, A., Berlin, L., & Bohlin, G. (2003). Emotionality, emotion regulation, and adaptation among 5- to 8-year-old children. Emotion, 3, 30–47. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.30 Google Scholar
Saudino, K. J., & Wang, M. (2012). Quantitative and molecular genetics studies of temperament. In Zentner, M. & Shiner, R. L. (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 315–346). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science.Google Scholar
Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Adolescents’ emotion regulation in daily life: Links to depressive symptoms and problem behavior. Child Development, 74, 1869–1880. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00643.x Google Scholar
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Gaertner, B., Popp, T., Smith, C. L., Kupfer, A., et al. (2007). Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers’ effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1170–1186. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.5.1170 Google Scholar
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Silva, K. M., Eggum, N. D., Reiser, M., Edwards, A., et al. (2012). Longitudinal relations among maternal behaviors, effortful control, and young children's committed compliance. Developmental Psychology, 48, 552–566. doi:10.1037/a0025898 Google Scholar
Stevenson, M., & Crnic, K. (2013). Intrusive fathering, children's self-regulation and social skills: A mediation analysis. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57, 500–512. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01549.x Google Scholar
Stifter, C. A., & Braungart, J. M. (1995). The regulation of negative reactivity in infancy: Function and development. Developmental Psychology, 31, 448–455. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.3.448 Google Scholar
Taylor, Z. E., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Widaman, K. F. (2013). Longitudinal relations of intrusive parenting and effortful control to ego-resiliency during early childhood. Child Development, 84, 1145–1151. doi:10.1111/cdev.12054 Google Scholar
Thurstone, L. L. (1947). Multiple factor analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tucker, L.R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38, 1–10. doi:10.1007%2FBF02291170 Google Scholar
Valiente, C., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L. Reiser, M., Cumberland, A., Losoya, S., et al. (2006). Relations among mothers’ expressivity, children's effortful control, and their problem behaviors: A four-year longitudinal study. Emotion, 6, 459–472. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.459 Google Scholar
Verhoeven, M., Junger, M., van Aken, C., Deković, M., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2010). Parenting and children's externalizing behavior: Bidirectionality during toddlerhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 93–105. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2009.09.002 Google Scholar
Wang, Y., & Dix, T. (2013). Patterns of depressive parenting: Why they occur and their role in early developmental risk. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 884–895. doi:10.1037/a0034829 Google Scholar
Whiteside-Mansell, L., Bradley, R. H., Tresch Owen, M., Randolph, S. M., & Cauce, A. M. (2003). Parenting and children's behavior at 36 months: Equivalence between African American and European American mother-child dyads. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3, 197–234. doi:10.1207/S15327922PAR0303_02 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widaman, K. F. (2012). Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. In Cooper, H., Camic, P. M., Long, D. L., Panter, A. T., Rindskopf, D., & Sher, K. J. (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology: Vol. 3. Data analysis and research publication (pp. 361–389). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Widaman, K. F., & Grimm, K. J. (2014). Advanced psychometrics: Confirmatory factor analysis, item response theory, and the study of measurement invariance. In Reis, H. T. & Judd, C. M. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed., pp. 534–570). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar