Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-q9hcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-08T09:21:35.607Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Maternal history of childhood maltreatment and later parenting behavior: A meta-analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 February 2019

Laura-Émilie Savage ,
George M. Tarabulsy ,
Jessica Pearson ,
Delphine Collin-Vézina  and
Lisa-Marie Gagné
Laura-Émilie Savage*
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Laval University, Québec City, Canada University Centre for Research on Youth and Family, Québec City, Canada
George M. Tarabulsy
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Laval University, Québec City, Canada University Centre for Research on Youth and Family, Québec City, Canada
Jessica Pearson
Affiliation:
University Centre for Research on Youth and Family, Québec City, Canada School of Psychoeducation, University of Québec at Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, Canada
Delphine Collin-Vézina
Affiliation:
University Centre for Research on Youth and Family, Québec City, Canada School of Social Work, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
Lisa-Marie Gagné
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, Laval University, Québec City, Canada University Centre for Research on Youth and Family, Québec City, Canada
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Laura-Émilie Savage or George M. Tarabulsy, School of Psychology, Laval University, 2325, Allée des Bibliothèques, Québec (Québec), Canada, G1V 0A6; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Exposure to maltreatment during childhood (CM) can have deleterious effects throughout the life span of an individual. A parent's history of child maltreatment can also impact his or her own parenting behavior. Theoretically, parents who experienced maltreatment as children may have fewer resources to cope with the challenges of childrearing and may adopt more problematic parenting behaviors. However, empirical studies examining the association between CM and later parenting behavior have yielded mixed results. The aim of this study is to conduct a meta-analysis of studies that have examined the association between exposure to CM and the subsequent parenting outcomes of mothers of 0- to 6-year-old children. A secondary aim is to examine the potential impact of both conceptual and methodological moderators. A total of 32 studies (27 samples, 41 effect sizes, 17,932 participants) were retained for analysis. Results revealed that there is a small but statistically significant association between maternal exposure to CM and parenting behavior (r = –.13, p < .05). Moderator analyses revealed that effect sizes were larger when parenting measures involved relationship-based or negative, potentially abusive behaviors, when samples had a greater number of boys compared to girls, and when studies were older versus more recent. Results are discussed as they relate to the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment and abuse.

Keywords

childhood maltreatmentintergenerational transmissionmeta-analysisparenting
Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Special Issue 1: The effect of maltreatment experiences on maltreating and dysfunctional parenting: A search for mechanisms , February 2019 , pp. 9 - 21
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abajobir, A. A., Kisely, S., Williams, G., Strathearn, L., & Najman, J. M. (2018). Risky sexual behaviors and pregnancy outcomes in young adulthood following substantiated childhood maltreatment: Findings from a prospective birth cohort study. Journal of Sex Research. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1368975Google Scholar
Alink, L. R. A., Cicchetti, D., Kim, J., & Rogosch, F. A. (2012). Longitudinal associations among child maltreatment, social functioning, and cortisol regulation. Developmental Psychology, 48, 224.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. I., Campos, J. J., Witherington, D. C., Dahl, A., Rivera, M., He, M., … Barbu-Roth, M. (2013). The role of locomotion in psychological development. Frontiers in Psychology, 4.Google Scholar
Appleyard, K., Egeland, B., van Dulmen, M. H. M., & Sroufe, L. A. (2005). When more is not better: The role of cumulative risk in child behavior outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 235–245. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00351.xGoogle Scholar
*Bailey, H. N., DeOliveira, C. A., Wolfe, V. V, Evans, E. M., & Hartwick, C. (2012). The impact of childhood maltreatment history on parenting: A comparison of maltreatment types and assessment methods. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36, 236–246. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.11.005Google Scholar
Bailey, H. N., Tarabulsy, G. M., Moran, G., Pederson, D. R., & Bento, S. (2017). New insight on intergenerational attachment from a relationship-based analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 433–448.Google Scholar
*Barrett, B. (2010). Childhood sexual abuse and adulthood parenting: The mediating role of intimate partner violence. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19, 323–346.Google Scholar
*Beckerman, M., van Berkel, S. R., Mesman, J., & Alink, L. R. A. (2017). The role of negative parental attributions in the associations between daily stressors, maltreatment history, and harsh and abusive discipline. Child Abuse and Neglect, 64, 109–116. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.12.015Google Scholar
Berger, L. M., Paxson, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2009). Mothers, men, and child protective services involvement. Child Maltreatment, 14, 263–276. doi:10.1177/1077559509337255Google Scholar
Bernedo, I. M., Salas, M. D., Garcia-Martin, M. A., & Fuentes, M. J. (2012). Teacher assessment of behavior problems in foster care children. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 615–621. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.12.003Google Scholar
*Bernstein, R. E., Laurent, H. K., Musser, E. D., Measelle, J. R., & Ablow, J. C. (2013). In an idealized world: Can discrepancies across self-reported parental care and high betrayal trauma during childhood predict infant attachment avoidance in the next generation? Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 14, 529–545.Google Scholar
*Bert, S. C., Guner, B. M., & Lanzi, R. G. (2009). The influence of maternal history of abuse on parenting knowledge and behavior. Family Relations, 58, 176–187. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00545.xGoogle Scholar
Berthelot, N., Ensink, K., Bernazzani, O., Normandin, L., Luyten, P., & Fonagy, P. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of attachment in abused and neglected mothers: The role of trauma-specific reflective functioning. Infant Mental Health Journal, 36, 200–212. doi:10.1002/imhj.21499Google Scholar
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, UK: Wiley.Google Scholar
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010). A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1, 97–111. doi:10.1002/jrsm.12Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Attachment V. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., … Vitaro, F. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 222–245. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.222Google Scholar
Bronfman, E., Madigan, S., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (1992–2009). Atypicial Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification (AMBIANCE): Manual for coding disrupted affective communication. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
*Buist, A. (1998). Childhood abuse, postpartum depression and parenting difficulties: A literature review of associations. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 32, 370–378.Google Scholar
*Chung, E. K., Mathew, L., Rothkopf, A. C., Elo, I. T., Coyne, J. C., & Culhane, J. F. (2009). Parenting attitudes and infant spanking: The influence of childhood experiences. Pediatrics, 124, e278–e286. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-3247Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2016). Child maltreatment and developmental psychopathology: A multilevel perspective. In Developmental psychopathology: Maladaptation and psychopathology (Vol. 3, 3rd ed., pp. 457–512). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cross, D., Kim, Y. J., Vance, L. A., Robinson, G., Jovanovic, T., & Bradley, B. (2016). Maternal child sexual abuse is associated with lower maternal warmth toward daughters but not sons. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 25, 813–826. doi:10.1080/10538712.2016.1234532Google Scholar
Cyr, C., Euser, E. M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2010). Attachment security and disorganization in maltreating and high-risk families: A series of meta-analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 87–108. doi:10.1017/S0954579409990289Google Scholar
*Dayton, C. J., Huth-Bocks, A. C., & Busuito, A. (2016). The influence of interpersonal aggression on maternal perceptions of infant emotions: Associations with early parenting quality. Emotion, 16, 436–448. doi:10.1037/emo0000114Google Scholar
*Dubowitz, H., Black, M. M., Kerr, M. A., Hussey, J. M., Morrel, T. M., Everson, M. D., & Starr, R. H. (2001). Type and timing of mothers’ victimization: Effects on mothers and children. Pediatrics (Evanston), 107, 728–735.Google Scholar
Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56, 455–463.Google Scholar
*Ensink, K., Normandin, L., Plamondon, A., Berthelot, N., & Fonagy, P. (2016). Intergenerational pathways from reflective functioning to infant attachment through parenting. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 48, 9–18. doi:10.1037/cbs0000030Google Scholar
Ethier, L. S., Couture, G., & Lacharite, C. (2004). Risk factors associated with the chronicity of high potential for child abuse and neglect. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 13–24.Google Scholar
Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A.-M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81, 435–456. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01405.xGoogle Scholar
Feeney, B. C., & Woodhouse, S. S. (2016). Caregiving. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed., pp. 827–851). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Font, S. A., & Maguire-Jack, K. (2016). Pathways from childhood abuse and other adversities to adult health risks: The role of adult socioeconomic conditions. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 390–399. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.05.013Google Scholar
Fraiberg, S., Adelson, E., & Shapiro, V. (1975). Ghosts in the nursery. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 14, 387–421.Google Scholar
Freisthler, B., Merritt, D. H., & LaScala, E. A. (2006). Understanding the ecology of child maltreatment: A review of the literature and directions for future research. Child Maltreatment, 11, 263–280.Google Scholar
*Fuchs, A., Moehler, E., Resch, F., & Kaess, M. (2015). Impact of a maternal history of childhood abuse on the development of mother–infant interaction during the first year of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 179–189. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.05.023Google Scholar
Gallo, E. A. G., Munhoz, T. N., de Mola, C. L., & Murray, J. (2018). Gender differences in the effects of childhood maltreatment on adult depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 79, 107–114. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.003Google Scholar
George, C., & Solomon, J. (2008). The caregiving system: A behavioral systems approach to parenting. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 833–856). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Benoit, D., & Blokland, K. (2003). Atypical maternal behavior, maternal representations, and infant disorganized attachment. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 239–257.Google Scholar
*Gonzalez, A., Jenkins, J. M., Steiner, M., & Fleming, A. S. (2012). Maternal early life experiences and parenting: The mediating role of cortisol and executive function. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 673–682.Google Scholar
Government of Canada. (2012). Child maltreatment in Canada. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/health-promotion/stop-family-violence/prevention-resource-centre/children/child-maltreatment-canada.htmlGoogle Scholar
Guyon-Harris, K. L., Ahlfs-Dunn, S., & Huth-Bocks, A. (2017). PTSD symptom trajectories among mothers reporting interpersonal trauma: Protective factors and parenting outcomes. Journal of Family Violence, 32, 657–667. doi:10.1007/s10896-017-9934-3Google Scholar
*Harmer, A. L. M., Sanderson, J., & Mertin, P. (1999). Influence of negative childhood experiences on psychological functioning, social support, and parenting for mothers recovering from addiction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 23, 421–433.Google Scholar
Huedo-Medina, T. B., Sánchez-Meca, J., Marín-Martínez, F., & Botella, J. (2006). Assessing heterogeneity in meta-analysis: Q statistic or I2 index? Psychological Methods, 11, 193–206. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.11.2.193Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E. (1987). Do abused children become abusive parents? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 186–192. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03528.xGoogle Scholar
*Kim, H. K., Pears, K. C., Fisher, P. A., Connelly, C. D., & Landsverk, J. A. (2010). Trajectories of maternal harsh parenting in the first 3 years of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 897–906.Google Scholar
King, K. M., Luk, J. W., Witkiewitz, K., Racz, S., McMahon, R. J., & Wu, J. (2018). Externalizing behavior across childhood as reported by parents and teachers: A partial measurement invariance model. Assessment, 25, 744–758. doi:10.1177/1073191116660381Google Scholar
Koehn, A. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2018). Parent-child attachment: Meta-analysis of associations with parenting behaviors in middle childhood and adolescence. Attachment and Human Development, 20, 378–405. doi:10.1080/14616734.2017.1408131Google Scholar
Leaper, C., Anderson, K. J., & Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effects on parents’ talk to their children: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 34, 3–27.Google Scholar
*Lounds, J. J., Borkowski, J. G., & Whitman, T. L. (2006). The potential for child neglect: The case of adolescent mothers and their children. Child Maltreatment, 11, 281–293.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Block, D. (1996). The disturbed caregiving system: Relations among childhood trauma, maternal caregiving, and infant affect and attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17, 257–275.Google Scholar
Madigan, S., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Moran, G., Pederson, D. R., & Benoit, D. (2007). Unresolved states of mind, anomalous parental behavior, and disorganized attachment: A review and meta-analysis of a transmission gap. Attachment & Human Development, 8, 89–111. doi:10.1080/14616730600774458Google Scholar
Madigan, S., Cyr, C., Eirich, R., Fearon, R. M. P., Ly, A., Rash, C., … Alink, L. (2019). Testing the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis: Meta-Analytic evidence of the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. Development & Psychopathology, 23–51.Google Scholar
*Madigan, S., Wade, M., Plamondon, A., & Jenkins, J. (2015). Maternal abuse history, postpartum depression, and parenting: Links with preschoolers’ internalizing problems. Infant Mental Health Journal, 36, 146–155. doi:10.1002/imhj.21496Google Scholar
Madigan, S., Wade, M., Tarabulsy, G., Jenkins, J. M., & Shouldice, M. (2014). Association between abuse history and adolescent pregnancy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55, 151–159. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.05.002Google Scholar
Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents’ unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 161–182). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
*Martinez-Torteya, C., Dayton, C. J., Beeghly, M., Seng, J. S., McGinnis, E., Broderick, A., … Muzik, M. (2014). Maternal parenting predicts infant biobehavioral regulation among women with a history of childhood maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 379–392. doi:10.1017/S0954579414000017Google Scholar
*Milan, S., Lewis, J., Ethier, K., Kershaw, T., & Ickovics, J. R. (2004). The impact of physical maltreatment history on the adolescent mother-infant relationship: Mediating and moderating effects during the transition to early parenthood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 249–261.Google Scholar
*Moehler, E., Biringen, Z., & Poustka, L. (2007). Emotional availability in a sample of mothers with a history of abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 624–628. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.4.624Google Scholar
Moehler, E., Resch, F., Cierpka, A., & Cierpka, M. (2001). The early appearance and intergenerational transmission of maternal traumatic experiences in the context of mother-infant interaction. Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 27, 257–271. doi:10.1080/00754170110087540Google Scholar
Moran, G., Forbes, L., Evans, E., Tarabulsy, G. M., & Madigan, S. (2008). Both maternal sensitivity and atypical maternal behavior independently predict attachment security and disorganization in adolescent mother–infant relationships. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 321–325.Google Scholar
*Muzik, M., Bocknek, E. L., Broderick, A., Richardson, P., Rosenblum, K. L., Thelen, K., & Seng, J. S. (2013). Mother-infant bonding impairment across the first 6 months postpartum: The primacy of psychopathology in women with childhood abuse and neglect histories. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 16, 29–38. doi:10.1007/s00737-012-0312-0Google Scholar
Narang, D. S., & Contreras, J. M. (2000). Dissociation as a mediator between child abuse history and adult abuse potential. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 653–665. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00132-0Google Scholar
Nguyen, T. P., Karney, B. R., & Bradbury, T. N. (2017). Childhood abuse and later marital outcomes: Do partner characteristics moderate the association? Journal of Family Psychology, 31, 82.Google Scholar
Nolin, P., & Ethier, L. (2007). Using neuropsychological profiles to classify neglected children with or without physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 631–643. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.009Google Scholar
Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine, 9, e1001349. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349Google Scholar
*Nuttall, A. K., Valentino, K., Wang, L., Lefever, J. B., & Borkowski, J. G. (2015). Maternal history of parentification and warm responsiveness: The mediating role of knowledge of infant development. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 863–872. doi:10.1037/fam0000112Google Scholar
*Pasalich, D. S., Cyr, M., Zheng, Y., McMahon, R. J., & Spieker, S. J. (2016). Child abuse history in teen mothers and parent–child risk processes for offspring externalizing problems. Child Abuse & Neglect, 56, 89–98. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.04.011Google Scholar
Pederson, D. R., & Moran, G. (1995). A categorical description of infant-mother relationships in the home and its relation to Q-sort measures of infant-mother interaction. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 60(2–3), 111–132. doi:10.2307/1166174Google Scholar
*Pereira, J., Vickers, K., Atkinson, L., Gonzalez, A., Wekerle, C., & Levitan, R. (2012). Parenting stress mediates between maternal maltreatment history and maternal sensitivity in a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 433–437. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.01.006Google Scholar
Plant, D. T., Jones, F. W., Pariante, C. M., & Pawlby, S. (2017). Association between maternal childhood trauma and offspring childhood psychopathology: Mediation analysis from the ALSPAC cohort. British Journal of Psychiatry, 211, 144–150.Google Scholar
Putnam, K. T., Harris, W. W., & Putnam, F. W. (2013). Synergistic childhood adversities and complex adult psychopathology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 435–442. doi:10.1002/jts.21833Google Scholar
*Renner, L. M., Whitney, S. D., & Easton, S. D. (2015). Profiles of self-reported parenting competence and stress among women with/without histories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 749–761. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9886-zGoogle Scholar
*Rijlaarsdam, J., Stevens, G. W. J. M., Jansen, P. W., Ringoot, A. P., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hofman, A., … Tiemeier, H. (2014). Maternal childhood maltreatment and offspring emotional and behavioral problems: Maternal and paternal mechanisms of risk transmission. Child Maltreatment, 19, 67–78.Google Scholar
*Roberts, R., O'Connor, T., Dunn, J., & Golding, J. (2004). The effects of child sexual abuse in later family life; mental health, parenting and adjustment of offspring. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 525–545. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.07.006Google Scholar
*Schuetze, P., & Eiden, R. D. (2005). The relationship between sexual abuse during childhood and parenting outcomes: Modeling direct and indirect pathways. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 645–659. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.11.004Google Scholar
*Sexton, M. B., Davis, M. T., Menke, R., Raggio, G. A., & Muzik, M. (2017). Mother–child interactions at six months postpartum are not predicted by maternal histories of abuse and neglect or maltreatment type. Psychological Trauma, 9, 622–626. doi:10.1037/tra0000272Google Scholar
Shanahan, L., McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., & Osgood, D. W. (2007). Warmth with mothers and fathers from middle childhood to late adolescence: Within- and between-families comparisons. Developmental Psychology, 43, 551–563. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.551Google Scholar
Smith, C., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Shelton, T. L. (2004). Predicting stability and change in toddler behavior problems: Contributions of maternal behavior and child gender. Developmental Psychology, 40, 29–42.Google Scholar
Spieker, S. J., & Bensley, L. (1994). Roles of living arrangements and grandmother social support in adolescent mothering and infant attachment. Developmental Psychology, 30, 102.Google Scholar
Spieker, S. J., Larson, N. C., Lewis, S. M., Keller, T. E., & Gilchrist, L. (1999). Developmental trajectories of disruptive behavior problems in preschool children of adolescent mothers. Child Development, 70, 443–458.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., & Fleeson, J. (1986). Attachment and the construction of relationships. Relationships and Development, 51, 72.Google Scholar
Stack, D. M., Serbin, L. A., Girouard, N., Enns, L. N., Bentley, V. M. N., Ledingham, J. E., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2012). The quality of the mother-child relationship in high-risk dyads: Application of the Emotional Availability Scales in an intergenerational, longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 93–105. doi:10.1017/S095457941100068XGoogle Scholar
*Stacks, A. M., Muzik, M., Wong, K., Beeghly, M., Huth-Bocks, A., Irwin, J. L., & Rosenblum, K. L. (2014). Maternal reflective functioning among mothers with childhood maltreatment histories: Links to sensitive parenting and infant attachment security. Attachment & Human Development, 16, 515–533. doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.935452Google Scholar
Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., … Dees, J. E. M. E. G. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 13–29. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2006.03.006Google Scholar
Stoltenborgh, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Alink, L. R. A., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2015). The prevalence of child maltreatment across the globe: Review of a series of meta-analyses. Child Abuse Review, 24, 37–50. doi:10.1002/car.2353Google Scholar
Tabachnik, B., & Fidell, L. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Boston: Pearson Education.Google Scholar
Tarabulsy, G. M., Bernier, A., Provost, M. A., Maranda, J., Larose, S., Moss, E., … Tessier, R. (2005). Another look inside the gap: Ecological contributions to the transmission of attachment in a sample of adolescent mother-infant dyads. Developmental Psychology, 41, 212.Google Scholar
Tarabulsy, G. M., Pascuzzo, K., Moss, E., St.-Laurent, D., Bernier, A., & Cyr, C. (2008). Attachment-based interventions for maltreating families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 322–332.Google Scholar
Troy, M., & Sroufe, L. A. (1987). Victimization among preschoolers: Role of attachment relationship history. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 166–172. doi:10.1097/00004583-198703000-00007Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Child maltreatment. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatmentGoogle Scholar
*Webster-Stratton, C., & Hammond, M. (1988). Maternal depression and its relationship to life stress, perceptions of child behavior problems, parenting behaviors, and child conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 299–315. doi:10.1007/BF00913802Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2006). Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2016). Child maltreatment: Fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs150/en/Google Scholar
*Zvara, B. J., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Appleyard Carmody, K., & Cox, M. (2015). Childhood sexual trauma and subsequent parenting beliefs and behaviors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 44, 87–97. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.012Google Scholar
*Zvara, B. J., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & Cox, M. (2017). Maternal childhood sexual trauma, child directed aggression, parenting behavior, and the moderating role of child sex. Journal of Family Violence, 32, 219–229. doi:10.1007/s10896-016-9839-6Google Scholar