Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-jr75m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-08T17:27:41.074Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The interplay among socioeconomic status, household chaos, and parenting in the prediction of child conduct problems and callous–unemotional behaviors

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 July 2016

W. Roger Mills-Koonce ,
Michael T. Willoughby ,
Patricia Garrett-Peters ,
Nicholas Wagner ,
Lynne Vernon-Feagans  and
The Family Life Project Key Investigators
W. Roger Mills-Koonce*
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Michael T. Willoughby
Affiliation:
Research Triangle Institute
Patricia Garrett-Peters
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Nicholas Wagner
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Lynne Vernon-Feagans
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Roger Mills-Koonce, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Child conduct problems (CP) reflect a heterogeneous collection of oppositional, aggressive, norm-violating, and sometimes violent behaviors, whereas child callous–unemotional (CU) behaviors reflect interpersonal styles of interactions reflecting a lack of guilt and empathy as well as uncaring and shallow emotional responses to others. Taken together, high levels of child CP and CU behaviors are thought to identify a relatively homogenous group of children at elevated risk for persistent and more severe problem behaviors across childhood and into adulthood. Although a large body of research has examined the developmental etiology of CP behaviors, only recently has a developmental psychopathology approach been applied to early CU behaviors. The current study examines multiple levels of contextual influences during the first years of life, including family socioeconomic status, household chaos, and parenting behaviors, on CP and CU behaviors assessed during the first-grade year. Whereas previous studies found associations between parenting behaviors and child problem behaviors moderated by household chaos, the current study found no evidence of moderation. However, path analyses suggest that the associations between child CP and CU behaviors and the contextual variables of socioeconomic status (family income and parental education) and household chaos (disorganization and instability) were mediated by maternal sensitive and harsh–intrusive parenting behavior. Analyses are presented, interpreted, and discussed with respect to both bioecological and family stress models of development.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 28 , Special Issue 3: Longitudinal Transactional Models of Development and Psychopathology , August 2016 , pp. 757 - 771
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Barker, E. D., Oliver, B. R., Viding, E., Salekin, R. T., & Maughan, B. (2011). The impact of prenatal maternal risk, fearless temperament and early parenting on adolescent callous-unemotional traits: A 14-year longitudinal investigation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 878–888.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Defiant children: A clinician's manual for assessment and parent training (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children's executive functioning. Child Development, 81, 326–339.Google Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., Mills-Koonce, R., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., et al. (2008). Maternal and child contributions to cortisol response to emotional arousal in young children from low-income, rural communities. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1095–1109.Google Scholar
Blair, R. R., Peschardt, K., Budhani, S., Mitchell, D. V., & Pine, D. S. (2006). The development of psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 262–275.Google Scholar
Blankson, A. N., O'Brien, M., Leerkes, E. M., Calkins, S. D., & Marcovitch, S. (2015). Do hours spent viewing television at ages 3 and 4 predict vocabulary and executive functioning at age 5? Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 61, 264–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blonigen, D. M., Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Psychopathic personality traits: Heritability and genetic overlap with internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Psychological Medicine, 35, 637–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boylan, K., Vaillancourt, T., Boyle, M., & Szatmari, P. (2007). Comorbidity of internalizing disorders in children with oppositional defiant disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 16, 484–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Lerner, R. M. & Damon, W. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 793–828). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., Johnson, A. D., & Leventhal, T. (2010). Disorder, turbulence, and resources in children's homes and neighborhoods. In Evans, G. W. & Wachs, T. D. (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective (pp. 155–170). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, E. D., Ackerman, B. P., & Moore, C. A. (2013). Family adversity and inhibitory control for economically disadvantaged children: Preschool relations and associations with school readiness. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 443–452.Google Scholar
Burchinal, M., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Cox, M. (2008). Cumulative social risk, parenting, and infant development in rural low-income communities. Parenting: Science and Practice, 8, 41–69.Google Scholar
Chen, N., Deater-Deckard, K., & Bell, M. A. (2014). The role of temperament by family environment interactions in child maladjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1251–1262.Google Scholar
Christian, R. E., Frick, P. J., Hill, N. L., Tyler, L., & Frazer, D. R. (1997). Psychopathy and conduct problems in children: II. Implications for subtyping children with conduct problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 233–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conger, R. D., Wallace, L. E., Sun, Y., Simons, R. L., McLoyd, V. C., & Brody, G. H. (2002). Economic pressure in African American families: A replication and extension of the family stress model. Developmental Psychology, 38, 179–193.Google Scholar
Corapci, F., & Wachs, T. D. (2002). Does parental mood or efficacy mediate the influence of environmental chaos upon parenting behavior? Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 48, 182–201.Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Compton, S. N., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 2023–2029.Google Scholar
Cox, M. J., & Crnic, K. (2002). Qualitative ratings for parent–child interaction at 3–12 months of age. Unpublished manuscript, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Department of Psychology.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Fraser, J., Frost, A., & Hawes, D. J. (2005). Disentangling the underlying dimensions of psychopathy and conduct problems in childhood: A community study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 400–410.Google Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K., Mullineaux, P. Y., Beekman, C., Petrill, S. A., Schatschneider, C., & Thompson, L. A. (2009). Conduct problems, IQ, and household chaos: A longitudinal multi-informant study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1301–1308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Wolff, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591.Google Scholar
Dinno, A. (2009). Implementing Horn's parallel analysis for principal component analysis and factor analysis. Stata Journal, 9, 291.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349–371.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Socialization mediators of the relation between socioeconomic status and child conduct problems. Child Development, 65, 649–665.Google Scholar
Dumas, J. E., Nissley, J., Nordstrom, A., Smith, E. P., Prinz, R. J., & Levine, D. W. (2005). Home chaos: Sociodemographic, parenting, interactional, and child correlates. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 93–104.Google Scholar
Evans, G. W., Lepore, S. J., Shejwal, B. R., & Palsane, M. N. (1998). Chronic residential crowding and children's well-being: An ecological perspective. Child Development, 69, 1514–1523.Google ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., & Wachs, T. D. (2010). Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Farrant, B. M., Devine, T. J., Maybery, M. T., & Fletcher, J. (2012). Empathy, perspective taking and prosocial behaviour: The importance of parenting practices. Infant and Child Development, 21, 175–188.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P., Ullrich, S., & Salekin, R. T. (2010). Environmental influences on child and adolescent psychopathy. In Salekin, R. T. & Lynam, D. R. (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychopathy (pp. 202–230). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fiese, B. H., & Winter, M. A. (2010). The dynamics of family chaos and its relation to children's socioemotional well-being. In Evans, G. W. & Wachs, T. D. (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective (pp. 49–66). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Floyd, F. J., & Widaman, K. F. (1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7, 286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fontaine, N. G., McCrory, E. P., Boivin, M., Moffitt, T. E., & Viding, E. (2011). Predictors and outcomes of joint trajectories of callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 730–742.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J. (2004). The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits. Unpublished manuscript, University of New Orleans.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Bodin, S. D., & Barry, C. T. (2000). Psychopathic traits and conduct problems in community and clinic-referred samples of children: Further development of the Psychopathy Screening Device. Psychological Assessment, 12, 382–393.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Bodin, S. D., Dane, H. E., Barry, C. T., & Loney, B. R. (2003). Callous-unemotional traits and developmental pathways to severe conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39, 246–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 54–68.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Annual research review: A developmental psychopathology approach to understanding callous-unemotional traits in children and adolescents with serious conduct problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 532–548.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Viding, E. N. (2009). Antisocial behavior from a developmental psychopathology perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 1111–1131.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375.Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2003). Studying infant temperament via the revised infant behavior questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development, 26, 64–86.Google Scholar
Gennetian, L. A., & Miller, C. (2002). Children and welfare reform: A view from an experimental welfare program in Minnesota. Child Development, 73, 601–620.Google Scholar
Haltigan, J. D., Roisman, G. I., & Fraley, R. C. (2013). The predictive significance of early caregiving experiences for symptoms of psychopathology through midadolescence: Enduring or transient effects? Development and Psychopathology, 25, 209–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanson, T. L., McLanahan, S. S., & Thomson, E. (1998). Windows on divorce: Before and after. Social Science Research, 27, 329–349.Google Scholar
Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2007). Stability and malleability of callous-unemotional traits during treatment for childhood conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 347–355.Google Scholar
Hawes, D. J., Dadds, M. R., Frost, A. J., & Hasking, P. A. (2011). Do childhood callous-unemotional traits drive change in parenting practices? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 507–518.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., Hanscombe, K. B., Haworth, C. A., Davis, O. P., & Plomin, R. (2012). Chaotic homes and children's disruptive behavior: A longitudinal cross-lagged twin study. Psychological Science, 23, 643–650.Google Scholar
Kiang, L., Moreno, A., & Robinson, J. (2004). Maternal preconceptions about parenting predict child temperament, maternal sensitivity, and children's empathy. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1081–1092.Google Scholar
Kimonis, E. R., Cross, B., Howard, A., & Donoghue, K. (2013). Maternal care, maltreatment and callous-unemotional traits among urban male juvenile offenders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 165–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2014). Conduct and oppositional defiant disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (3rd ed., pp. 145–179). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Knafo, A., Zahn-Waxler, C., Van Hulle, C., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2008). The developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions. Emotion, 8, 737–752.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G. (1997). Mutually responsive orientation between mothers and their young children: Implications for early socialization. Child Development, 68, 94–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Forman, D. R., Aksan, N., & Dunbar, S. B. (2005). Pathways to conscience: Early mother-child mutually responsive orientation and children's moral emotion, conduct, and cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 19–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Gross, J. N., Lin, M. H., & Nichols, K. E. (2002). Guilt in young children: Development, determinants, and relations with a broader system of standards. Child Development, 73, 461–482.Google Scholar
Kotler, J. S., & McMahon, R. J. (2005). Child psychopathy: Theories, measurement, and relations with the development and persistence of conduct problems. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 291–325.Google Scholar
Kroneman, L. M., Hipwell, A. E., Loeber, R., Koot, H. M., & Pardini, D. A. (2011). Contextual risk factors as predictors of disruptive behavior disorder trajectories in girls: The moderating effect of callous-unemotional features. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 167–175.Google Scholar
Kujawa, A., Dougherty, L., Durbin, C. E., Laptook, R., Torpey, D., & Klein, D. N. (2014). Emotion recognition in preschool children: Associations with maternal depression and early parenting. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 159–170.Google Scholar
Lillard, A. S., Drell, M. B., Richey, E. M., Boguszewski, K., & Smith, E. D. (2015). Further examination of the immediate impact of television on children's executive function. Developmental Psychology, 51, 792–805.Google Scholar
Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 531–552.Google Scholar
Lorber, M. F., & Egeland, B. (2009). Infancy parenting and externalizing psychopathology from childhood through adulthood: Developmental trends. Developmental Psychology, 45, 909–912.Google Scholar
Madigan, S., Moran, G., Schuengel, C., Pederson, D. R., & Otten, R. (2007). Unresolved maternal attachment representations, disrupted maternal behavior and disorganized attachment in infancy: Links to toddler behavior problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1042–1050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magnuson, K., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2009). Enduring influences of childhood poverty. In Danziger, S. & Cancian, M. (Eds.), Changing poverty, changing policies (pp. 153–179). New York: Sage.Google Scholar
Matheny, A. P., Wachs, T. D., Ludwig, J. L., & Phillips, K. (1995). Bringing order out of chaos: Psychometric characteristics of the confusion, hubbub, and order scale. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 429–444.Google Scholar
McLeod, J. D., & Shanahan, M. J. (1993). Poverty, parenting, and children's mental health. American Sociological Review, 58, 351–366.Google Scholar
McLoyd, V. C. (2011). How money matters for children's socioemotional adjustment: Family processes and parental investment. In Carlo, G., Crockett, L. J., & Carranza, M. A. (Eds.), Health disparities in youth and families: Research and applications (pp. 33–72). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
McMahon, R. J., Witkiewitz, K., Kotler, J. S., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2010). Predictive validity of callous-unemotional traits measured in early adolescence with respect to multiple antisocial outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 752–763.Google Scholar
Meyer, J. M., Rutter, M., Silberg, J. L., Maes, H. H., Simonoff, E., Shillady, L. L., et al. (2000). Familial aggregation for conduct disorder symptomatology: The role of genes, marital discord and family adaptability. Psychological Medicine, 30, 759–774.Google Scholar
Miller, C. J., Marks, D. J., Miller, S. R., Berwid, O. G., Kera, E. C., Santra, A., et al. (2007). Brief report: Television viewing and risk for attention problems in preschool children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32, 448–452.Google Scholar
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Gariepy, J., Sutton, K., & Cox, M. J. (2008). Changes in maternal sensitivity across the first three years: Are mothers from different attachment dyads differentially influenced by depressive symptomatology? Attachment & Human Development, 10, 299–317.Google Scholar
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Garrett-Peters, P., Barnett, M., Granger, D. A., Blair, C., & Cox, M. J. (2011). Father contributions to cortisol responses in infancy and toddlerhood. Developmental Psychology, 47, 388–395.Google Scholar
Mistry, R. S., Vandewater, E. A., Huston, A. C., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Economic well-being and children's social adjustment: The role of family process in an ethnically diverse low-income sample. Child Development, 73, 935–951.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, G. A., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Propper, C. B., Calkins, S. D., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & Cox, M. J. (2009). Mother-infant vagal regulation in the face-to-face still-face paradigm is moderated by maternal sensitivity. Child Development, 80, 209–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mrug, S., & Windle, M. (2009). Mediators of neighborhood influences on externalizing behavior in preadolescent children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 265–280.Google Scholar
Muñoz, L. C., & Frick, P. J. (2007). The reliability, stability, and predictive utility of the self-report version of the Antisocial Process Screening Device. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48, 299–312.Google Scholar
Murrie, D. C., & Cornell, D. G. (2002). Psychopathy screening of incarcerated juveniles: A comparison of measures. Psychological Assessment, 14, 390–396.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2013). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1999). Chronicity of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and child functioning at 36 months. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1297–1310.Google Scholar
Odgers, C. L., Milne, B. J., Caspi, A., Crump, R., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2007). Predicting prognosis for the conduct-problem boy: Can family history help? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1240–1249.Google Scholar
Oliver, B. R., Pike, A., & Plomin, R. (2008). Nonshared environmental influences on teacher-reported behaviour problems: Monozygotic twin differences in perceptions of the classroom. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 646–653.Google Scholar
Pardini, D. A., Frick, P. J., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). Building an evidence base for DSM-5 conceptualizations of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Introduction to the Special Section. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 683–688.Google Scholar
Pardini, D. A., Lochman, J. E., & Powell, N. (2007). The development of callous-unemotional traits and antisocial behavior in children: Are there shared and/or unique predictors? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 319–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pasalich, D. S., Dadds, M. R., Hawes, D. J., & Brennan, J. (2011). Do callous-unemotional traits moderate the relative importance of parental coercion versus warmth in child conduct problems? An observational study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 1308–1315.Google Scholar
Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., Greenslade, K. E., & Milich, R. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 20, 83–102.Google Scholar
Perry, N. B., Calkins, S. D., & Bell, M. A. (in press). Indirect effects of maternal sensitivity on infant emotion regulation behaviors: The role of vagal withdrawal. Infancy. Google Scholar
Pike, A., Iervolino, A. C., Eley, T. C., Price, T. S., & Plomin, R. (2006). Environmental risk and young children's cognitive and behavioral development. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 55–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piotrowska, P. J., Stride, C. B., Croft, S. E., & Rowe, R. (2015). Socioeconomic status and antisocial behaviour among children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 35, 47–55.Google Scholar
Propper, C., & Moore, G. A. (2006). The influence of parenting on infant emotionality: A multi-level psychobiological perspective. Developmental Review, 26, 427–460.Google Scholar
Raver, C. C., Blair, C., Garrett-Peters, P., & Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2015). Poverty, household chaos, and interparental aggression predict children's ability to recognize and modulate negative emotions. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 695–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rowe, R., Maughan, B., Moran, P., Ford, T., Briskman, J., & Goodman, R. (2010). The role of callous and unemotional traits in the diagnosis of conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 688–695.Google Scholar
Rushton, J., Bruckman, D., & Kelleher, K. (2002). Primary care referral of children with psychosocial problems. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 156, 592–598.Google Scholar
Sadeh, N., Javdani, S., Jackson, J. J., Reynolds, E. K., Potenza, M. N., Gelernter, J., et al. (2010). Serotonin transporter gene associations with psychopathic traits in youth vary as a function of socioeconomic resources. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 604–609.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. (2010). Dynamic developmental systems: Chaos and order. In Evans, G. W. & Wachs, T. D. (Eds.), Chaos and its influence on children's development: An ecological perspective (pp. 255–264). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., & Shelleby, E. C. (2014). Early-starting conduct problems: Intersection of conduct problems and poverty. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 503–528.Google Scholar
Shi, Z., Bureau, J., Easterbrooks, M. A., Zhao, X., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and prospectively observed quality of early care as predictors of antisocial personality disorder features. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33, 55–69.Google Scholar
Smith, J. D., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D. S., Wilson, M. N., Winter, C. C., & Patterson, G. R. (2014). Coercive family process and early-onset conduct problems from age 2 to school entry. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 917–932.Google Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. G. (2012). Interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability and children's cortisol functioning in family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 48, 237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swain, J. E., Lorberbaum, J. P., Kose, S., & Strathearn, L. (2007). Brain basis of early parent–infant interactions: Psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 262–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tucker, C. J., Marx, J., & Long, L. (1998). “Moving on”: Residential mobility and children's school lives. Sociology of Education, 71, 111–129.Google Scholar
Valiente, C., Lemery-Chalfant, K., & Reiser, M. (2007). Pathways to problem behaviors: Chaotic homes, parent and child effortful control, and parenting. Social Development, 16, 249–267.Google Scholar
Vernon-Feagans, L., Garrett-Peters, P., Willoughby, M., Mills-Koonce, R., & Family Life Key Investigators. (2012). Chaos, poverty, and parenting: Predictors of early language development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 339–351.Google Scholar
Viding, E., Jones, A. P., Paul, J. F., Moffitt, T. E., & Plomin, R. (2008), Heritability of antisocial behaviour at 9: Do callous-unemotional traits matter? Developmental Science, 11, 17–22.Google Scholar
Viding, E., & McCrory, E. J. (2012). Why should we care about measuring callous-unemotional traits in children? British Journal of Psychiatry, 200, 177–178.Google Scholar
Wachs, T. D. (2013). Relation of maternal personality to perceptions of environmental chaos in the home. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 34, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, N. J., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Willoughby, M. T., Zvara, B., & Cox, M. J. (2015). Parenting and children's representations of family predict disruptive and callous-unemotional behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 51, 935–948.Google Scholar
Waller, R., Gardner, F., & Hyde, L. W. (2013). What are the associations between parenting, callous-unemotional traits, and antisocial behavior in youth? A systematic review of evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 593–608.Google Scholar
Waller, R., Gardner, F., Hyde, L. W., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., & Wilson, M. N. (2012). Do harsh and positive parenting predict parent reports of deceitful-callous behavior in early childhood? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 946–953.Google Scholar
Waller, R., Gardner, F., Viding, E., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., et al. (2014). Bidirectional associations between parental warmth, callous unemotional behavior, and behavior problems in high-risk preschoolers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1275–1285.Google Scholar
Waller, R., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., Reiss, D., et al. (in press). Toward an understanding of the role of the environment in the development of early callous behavior. Journal of Personality.Google Scholar
Wang, F., Christ, S. L., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Garrett-Peters, P., & Cox, M. J. (2013). Association between maternal sensitivity and externalizing behavior from preschool to preadolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34, 89–100.Google Scholar
Willoughby, M. T., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Gottfredson, N. C., & Wagner, N. J. (2014). Measuring callous unemotional behaviors in early childhood: Factor structure and the prediction of stable aggression in middle childhood. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36, 30–42.Google Scholar
Willoughby, M. T., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C. B., & Waschbusch, D. (2013). Observed parenting behaviors interact with a polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene to predict the emergence of oppositional defiant and callous–unemotional behaviors at age 3 years. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 903–917.Google Scholar
Willoughby, M. T., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Waschbusch, D. A., & Gottfredson, N. C. (2015). An examination of the parent report version of the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits in a community sample of first-grade children. Assessment, 22, 76–85.Google Scholar
Willoughby, M. T., Waschbusch, D. A., Moore, G. A., & Propper, C. B. (2011). Using the ASEBA to screen for callous unemotional traits in early childhood: Factor structure, temporal stability, and utility. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 19–30.Google Scholar
Woodworth, M., & Waschbusch, D. (2008). Emotional processing in children with conduct problems and callous/unemotional traits. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34, 234–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for prevention. American Psychologist, 67, 272–284.Google Scholar
Zvara, B. J., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Garrett-Peters, P., Wagner, N. J., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Cox, M. (2014). The mediating role of parenting in the associations between household chaos and children's representations of family dysfunction. Attachment & Human Development, 16, 633–655.Google Scholar