Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-dlb68 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-15T01:22:14.614Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Early childhood parenting and child impulsivity as precursors to aggression, substance use, and risky sexual behavior in adolescence and early adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2017

Rochelle F. Hentges ,
Daniel S. Shaw  and
Ming-Te Wang
Rochelle F. Hentges*
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
Daniel S. Shaw
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
Ming-Te Wang
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Rochelle F. Hentges, Owerko Centre, Third Floor CDC Building, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The current study utilized a longitudinal design to explore the effect of early child impulsivity and rejecting parenting on the development of problematic behaviors in adolescence and early adulthood. Using a low-income sample of 310 mothers and their sons, we examined the direct and interactive effects of child impulsivity and rejecting parenting at age 2 on aggression and substance use at ages 12, 15, and 22, as well as risky sexual behavior at ages 15 and 22. Results revealed that rejecting parenting at age 2 predicted greater aggression at age 12 and risky sexual behavior at ages 15 and 22. Early impulsivity had few direct effects on later outcomes, with the exception of greater substance use at age 22. Instead, impulsivity emerged as a significant moderator in the link between rejecting parenting and aggression at all three ages and substance use at age 15. Specifically, early rejecting parenting predicted greater aggression and substance use only for children high in impulsivity. Findings highlight the potential for early child and parenting risk factors to have long-term implications for adjustment, with the combination of high impulsivity and rejecting parenting being particularly deleterious for problems of aggression throughout adolescence and into early adulthood.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 4 , October 2018 , pp. 1305 - 1319
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This research was supported by Grants 50907 and 01666 from the National Institutes of Health and Grant 25630 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (to D.S.S). We thank the staff of the Pitt Mother & Child Project and the study families for making this research possible.

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Ahmad, S. I., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2017). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, trait impulsivity, and externalizing behavior in a longitudinal sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1077–1089. doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0226-9Google Scholar
Arbuckle, J. L. (2009). AMOS 18.0 [Computer software]. Chicago: SPSS Corporation.Google Scholar
Armstrong, J. M., Ruttle, P. L., Burk, L. R., Costanzo, P. R., Strauman, T. J., & Essex, M. J. (2013). Early risk factors for alcohol use across high school and its covariation with deviant friends. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74, 746–756. doi:10.15288/jsad.2013.74.746Google Scholar
Bari, A., & Robbins, T. W. (2013). Inhibition and impulsivity: Behavioral and neural basis of response control. Progress in Neurobiology, 108, 44–79. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.06.005Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908. doi:10.1037/a0017376Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., & Draper, P. (1991). Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development, 62, 647–670. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01558.xGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., Houts, R., & Halpern-Felsher, B. L. (2010). The development of reproductive strategy in females: Early maternal harshness → earlier menarche → increased sexual risk taking. Developmental Psychology, 46, 120–128. doi:10.1037/a0015549Google Scholar
Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children's executive functioning. Child Development, 81, 326–339. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01397.xGoogle Scholar
Brody, G. H., & Ge, X. (2001). Linking parenting processes and self-regulation to psychological functioning and alcohol use during early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 82. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.1.82Google Scholar
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Theory and measurement of EAS. In Buss, A. & Plomin, R. (Eds.), Temperament: Early developing personality traits (pp. 85–104). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Buss, K. A., Kiel, E. J., Morales, S., & Robinson, E. (2014). Toddler inhibitory control, bold response to novelty, and positive affect predict externalizing symptoms in kindergarten. Social Development, 23, 232–249. doi:10.1111/sode.12058Google Scholar
Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C., & Schafer, W. D. (1999). Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 367–383. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.367Google Scholar
Cahalan, D., Cisin, I. H., & Crossley, H. M. (1969). American drinking practices: A national study of drinking behavior and attitudes. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Center for Alcohol Studies.Google Scholar
Caldwell, B. M., & Bradley, R. H. (1984). Home observation for measurement of the environment. Little Rock, AR: University of Arkansas at Little Rock.Google Scholar
Campbell, S. B., Pierce, E. W., Moore, G., Marakovitz, S., & Newby, K. (1996). Boys’ externalizing problems at elementary school age: Pathways from early behavior problems, maternal control, and family stress. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 701–719. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007379Google Scholar
Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.xGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Newman, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Behavioral observations at age 3 years predict adult psychiatric disorders: Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1033–1039. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830110071009Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007318Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2006). An ecological-transactional perspective on child maltreatment: Failure of the average expectable environment and its influence on child development. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 3, 2nd ed., pp. 129–201). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. (1987). Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms. Science, 236, 410–416.Google Scholar
Colder, C. R., & Chassin, L. (1997). Affectivity and impulsivity: Temperament risk for adolescent alcohol involvement. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 11, 83–97. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.11.2.83Google Scholar
Connell, A., Bullock, B. M., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D., Wilson, M., & Gardner, F. (2008). Family intervention effects on co-occurring early childhood behavioral and emotional problems: A latent transition analysis approach. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1211–1225. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9244-6Google Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Agocha, V. B., & Sheldon, M. S. (2000). A motivational perspective on risky behaviors: The role of personality and affect regulatory processes. Journal of Personality, 68, 1059–1088. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00126Google Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Wood, P. K., Orcutt, H. K., & Albino, A. (2003). Personality and the predisposition to engage in risky or problem behaviors during adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 390–410. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.390Google Scholar
Davies, P., Cicchetti, D., & Hentges, R. F. (2015). Maternal unresponsiveness and child disruptive problems: The interplay of uninhibited temperament and dopamine transporter genes. Child Development, 86, 63–79. doi:10.1111/cdev.12281Google Scholar
Dearing, E., & Hamilton, L. C. (2006). V. Contemporary advances and classic advice for analyzing mediating and moderating variables. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 71, 88–104. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2006.00406.xGoogle Scholar
Del Giudice, M., & Belsky, J. (2011). The development of life history strategies: Toward a multi-stage theory. In Buss, D. M. & Hawley, P. H. (Eds.), The evolution of personality and individual differences (pp. 154–176). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
de Wit, H., & Richards, J. B. (2004). Dual determinants of drug use in humans: Reward and impulsivity. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 50, 19–55.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Lansford, J. E., Miller, S., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2009). A dynamic cascade model of the development of substance use onset. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74, vii–119. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2009.00528.xGoogle Scholar
Eaton, D. K., Brener, N. D., Kann, L., Denniston, M. M., McManus, T., Kyle, T. M., … Ross, J. G. (2010). Comparison of paper-and-pencil versus Web administration of the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS): Risk behavior prevalence estimates. Evaluation Review, 34, 137–153. doi:10.1177/0193841X10362491Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Ma, Y., Chang, L., Zhou, Q., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. (2007). Relations of effortful control, reactive undercontrol, and anger to Chinese children's adjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 385–409. doi:10.1017/S0954579407070198Google Scholar
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Ageton, S. S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Evenden, J. L. (1999). Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology, 146, 348–361. doi:10.1007/PL00005481Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (1995). The development of offending and antisocial behaviour from childhood: Key findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 929–964.Google Scholar
Feldman, S. S., & Brown, N. L. (1993). Family influences on adolescent male sexuality: The mediational role of self-restraint. Social Development, 2, 15–35. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.1993.tb00002.xGoogle Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2013). Childhood self-control and adult outcomes: Results from a 30-year longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 709–717. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.04.008Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., & Rothbart, M. K. (2012). Etiology of preschool behavior problems: Contributions of temperament attributes in early childhood. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33, 197–211. doi:10.1002/imhj.21312Google Scholar
Harold, G. T., Leve, L. D., Barrett, D., Elam, K., Neiderhiser, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., … Thapar, A. (2013). Biological and rearing mother influences on child ADHD symptoms: Revisiting the developmental interface between nature and nurture. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1038–1046. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12100Google Scholar
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four-Factor Index of Social Status. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Jentsch, J. D., & Taylor, J. R. (1999). Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: Implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology, 146, 373–390. doi:10.1007/PL00005483Google Scholar
Kahn, J. A., Kaplowitz, R. A., Goodman, E., & Emans, S. J. (2002). The association between impulsiveness and sexual risk behaviors in adolescent and young adult women. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 229–232. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00391-3Google Scholar
Karreman, A., de Haas, S., van Tuijl, C., van Aken, M. A., & Deković, M. (2010). Relations among temperament, parenting and problem behavior in young children. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 39–49. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.10.008Google Scholar
Klein, M. R., Lengua, L. J., Thompson, S. F., Moran, L., Ruberry, E. J., Kiff, C., & Zalewski, M. (2016). Bidirectional relations between temperament and parenting predicting pre-school age children's adjustment. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1169537Google Scholar
Kochanska, G. (1993). Toward a synthesis of parental socialization and child temperament in early development of conscience. Child Development, 64, 325–347. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02913.xGoogle Scholar
Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199–214. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199Google Scholar
Kopp, C. B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25, 343–354. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.343Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S. R., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411–424. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.3.411Google Scholar
Larzelere, R. E., Martin, J. A., & Amberson, T. G. (1989). The Toddler Behavior Checklist: A parent-completed assessment of social-emotional characteristics of young preschoolers. Family Relations, 38, 418–425. doi:10.2307/585747Google Scholar
Lejuez, C. W., Simmons, B. L., Aklin, W. M., Daughters, S. B., & Dvir, S. (2004). Risk-taking propensity and risky sexual behavior of individuals in residential substance use treatment. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1643–1647. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.02.035Google Scholar
Lengua, L. J., Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., & West, S. G. (2000). The additive and interactive effects of parenting and temperament in predicting adjustment problems of children of divorce. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 232–244. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2902_9Google Scholar
Loeber, R., & Dishion, T. (1983). Early predictors of male delinquency: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 68–99. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.68Google Scholar
Loeber, R., & Hay, D. (1997). Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 371–410. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.371Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1992). The role of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1006–1017. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.6.1006Google Scholar
Martin, J. (1981). A longitudinal study of the consequences of early mother–infant interaction: A microanalytic approach. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46, i–58. doi:10.2307/1166014Google Scholar
Miner, J. L., & Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (2008). Trajectories of externalizing behavior from age 2 to age 9: Relations with gender, temperament, ethnicity, parenting, and rater. Developmental Psychology, 44, 771–786. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.771Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., … Sears, M. R. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 2693–2698. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010076108Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2013). Lifelong impact of early self-control. American Scientist, 101, 352–359.Google Scholar
Molina, B. S., Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., Thompson, A. L., & Marshal, M. P. (2007). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder risk for heavy drinking and alcohol use disorder is age specific. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31, 643–654. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00349.xGoogle Scholar
Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2001). Parental and early childhood predictors of persistent physical aggression in boys from kindergarten to high school. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 389–394. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.4.389Google Scholar
Oldehinkel, A. J., Hartman, C. A., De Winter, A. F., Veenstra, R., & Ormel, J. (2004). Temperament profiles associated with internalizing and externalizing problems in preadolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 421–440. doi:10.10170S0954579404044591Google Scholar
Olson, S. L., Lopez-Duran, N., Lunkenheimer, E. S., Chang, H., & Sameroff, A. J. (2011). Individual differences in the development of early peer aggression: Integrating contributions of self-regulation, theory of mind, and parenting. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 253–266. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000775Google Scholar
Olson, S. L., Schilling, E. M., & Bates, J. E. (1999). Measurement of impulsivity: Construct coherence, longitudinal stability, and relationship with externalizing problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 151–165. doi:10.1023/A:1021915615677Google Scholar
Owens, J. S., Goldfine, M. E., Evangelista, N. M., Hoza, B., & Kaiser, N. M. (2007). A critical review of self-perceptions and the positive illusory bias in children with ADHD. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 335–351. doi:10.1007/s10567-007-0027-3Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Publishing.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (2002). The early development of coercive family process. In Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention (pp. 25–44). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Perry, J. L., & Carroll, M. E. (2008). The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse. Psychopharmacology, 200, 1–26. doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1173-0Google Scholar
Piquero, A. R., Carriaga, M. L., Diamond, B., Kazemian, L., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Stability in aggression revisited. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 365–372. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.04.001Google Scholar
Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2013). Vantage sensitivity: Individual differences in response to positive experiences. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 901–916. doi:10.1037/a0030196Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448. doi:10.3102/10769986031004437Google Scholar
Pulkkinen, L. (1986). The role of impulse control in the development of antisocial and prosocial behavior. In Olweus, D., Block, J., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior: Research, theories, and issues (pp. 149–175). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, S. P., Rothbart, M. K., & Gartstein, M. A. (2008). Homotypic and heterotypic continuity of fine-grained temperament during infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood. Infant and Child Development, 17, 387–405. doi:10.1002/icd.582Google Scholar
Raffaelli, M., & Crockett, L. J. (2003). Sexual risk taking in adolescence: The role of self-regulation and attraction to risk. Developmental Psychology, 39, 1036–1046. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.6.1036Google Scholar
Rioux, C., Castellanos-Ryan, N., Parent, S., Vitaro, F., Tremblay, R. E., & Séguin, J. R. (2016). Differential susceptibility to environmental influences: Interactions between child temperament and parenting in adolescent alcohol use. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 265–275. doi:10.1017/S0954579415000437Google Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Susman, E., Barnett-Walker, K., Booth-LaForce, C., Owen, M. T., Belsky, J., … NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2009). Early family and child-care antecedents of awakening cortisol levels in adolescence. Child Development, 80, 907–920. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01305.xGoogle Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ellis, L. K., & Posner, M. I. (2004). Temperament and self-regulation. In Baumeister, R. F. & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 357–370). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., O'Connor, T. G., & English and Romanian Adoptee Study Team. (2004). Are there biological programming effects for psychological development? Findings from a study of Romanian adoptees. Developmental Psychology, 40, 81–94. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.1.81Google Scholar
Schulenberg, J. E., & Maggs, J. L. (2002). A developmental perspective on alcohol use and heavy drinking during adolescence and the transition to young adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14(Suppl.), 54–70. doi:10/15288/jsas.2002.s14.54Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., & Bell, R. Q. (1993). Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 493–518. doi:10.1007/BF00916316Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Gilliom, M., Ingoldsby, E. M., & Nagin, D. S. (2003). Trajectories leading to school-age conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39, 189–200. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.189Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Hyde, L. W., & Brennan, L. M. (2012). Early predictors of boys’ antisocial trajectories. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 871–888. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000429Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Keenan, K., & Vondra, J. I. (1994). Developmental precursors of externalizing behavior: Ages 1 to 3. Developmental Psychology, 30, 355–364. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.3.355Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Lacourse, E., & Nagin, D. S. (2005). Developmental trajectories of conduct problems and hyperactivity from ages 2 to 10. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 931–942. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00390.xGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Winslow, E. B., Owens, E. B., Vondra, J. I., Cohn, J. F., & Bell, R. Q. (1998). The development of early externalizing problems among children from low-income families: A transformational perspective. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 95–107. doi:10.1023/A:1022665704584Google Scholar
Siebenbruner, J., Englund, M. M., Egeland, B., & Hudson, K. (2006). Developmental antecedents of late adolescence substance use patterns. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 551–571. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060287Google Scholar
Simons, R. L., Robertson, J. F., & Downs, W. R. (1988). The nature of the association between parental rejection and delinquent behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18, 297–310. doi:10.1007/BF02139043Google Scholar
Sitnick, S. L., Brennan, L. M., Forbes, E., & Shaw, D. S. (2014). Developmental pathways to sexual risk behavior in high-risk adolescent boys. Pediatrics, 133, 1038–1045. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-3976Google Scholar
Sitnick, S., Shaw, D. S., & Hyde, L. (2014). Precursors of adolescent substance use from early childhood and early adolescence: Testing a developmental cascade model. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 125–140. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000539Google Scholar
Slagt, M., Dubas, J. S., Denissen, J. J., Deković, M., & van Aken, M. A. (2015). Personality traits as potential susceptibility markers: Differential susceptibility to support among parents. Journal of Personality, 83, 155–166. doi:10.1111/jopy.12091Google Scholar
Slagt, M., Semon Dubas, J., & Aken, M. A. (2016). Differential susceptibility to parenting in middle childhood: Do impulsivity, effortful control and negative emotionality indicate susceptibility or vulnerability? Infant and Child Development, 25, 302–324. doi:10.1002/icd.1929Google Scholar
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. Oxford: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Trentacosta, C. J., & Shaw, D. S. (2008). Maternal predictors of rejecting parenting and early adolescent antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 247–259. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01941.xGoogle Scholar
van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Bartels, M., Hudziak, J. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2003). Causes of stability of aggression from early childhood to adolescence: A longitudinal genetic analysis in Dutch twins. Behavior Genetics, 33, 591–605. doi:10.1023/A:1025735002864Google Scholar
Van Leijenhorst, L., Zanolie, K., Van Meel, C. S., Westenberg, P. M., Rombouts, S. A., & Crone, E. A. (2010). What motivates the adolescent? Brain regions mediating reward sensitivity across adolescence. Cerebral Cortex, 20, 61–69. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp078Google Scholar
Vigil-Colet, A., & Codorniu-Raga, M. J. (2004). Aggression and inhibition deficits, the role of functional and dysfunctional impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1431–1440. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.013Google Scholar
Vitaro, F., Arseneault, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Impulsivity predicts problem gambling in low SES adolescent males. Addiction, 94, 565–575. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.94456511.xGoogle Scholar
Wills, T. A., & Dishion, T. J. (2004). Temperament and adolescent substance use: A transactional analysis of emerging self-control. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 69–81. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3301_7Google Scholar
Winslow, E. B., & Shaw, D. S. (1995). Early Parenting Coding System. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Young, S. E., Stallings, M. C., Corley, R. P., Krauter, K. S., & Hewitt, J. K. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on behavioral disinhibition. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 684–695. doi:10.1002/1096-8628(20001009)96:5<684::aid-ajmg16>3.0.co;2-g3.0.co;2-g>Google Scholar
Zuckerman, M. (1991). Psychobiology of personality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar