Hostname: page-component-669899f699-rg895 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-07T01:03:51.930Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Differential susceptibility to environmental influences: Interactions between child temperament and parenting in adolescent alcohol use

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 June 2015

Charlie Rioux ,
Natalie Castellanos-Ryan ,
Sophie Parent ,
Frank Vitaro ,
Richard E. Tremblay  and
Jean R. Séguin
Charlie Rioux
Affiliation:
Université de Montréal
Natalie Castellanos-Ryan*
Affiliation:
Université de Montréal
Sophie Parent
Affiliation:
Université de Montréal
Frank Vitaro
Affiliation:
Université de Montréal
Richard E. Tremblay
Affiliation:
Université de Montréal
Jean R. Séguin
Affiliation:
Université de Montréal
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Natalie Castellanos-Ryan, École de Psychoéducation, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Marie-Victorin, 90 avenue Vincent-d'Indy, Outremont, H2V 2S9 QC, Canada; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Temperament and parental practices (PP) are important predictors of adolescent alcohol use (AU); however, less is known about how they combine to increase or decrease risk of AU. This study examined whether age 6 temperament (i.e., impulsivity and inhibitory control) interacted with age 6 coercive PP and/or age 14 parental monitoring to predict AU at 15 years among 209 adolescents. Results showed that low parental monitoring was associated with more frequent AU and that coercive PP interacted with impulsivity to predict AU. This interaction was examined as a function of two models that were not studied before in the prediction of AU: the diathesis–stress model (i.e., impulsive children are more “vulnerable” to adverse PP than those with an easy temperament); and the differential susceptibility model (i.e., impulsive children are also more likely to benefit from good PP). Results supported the differential susceptibility model by showing that impulsive children were not only at higher risk for AU when combined with high coercive PP but also benefit from the absence of coercive PP. This supports the suggestion that the conception of certain temperament characteristics, or in this case impulsivity, as a “vulnerability” for adolescent AU, may need revision because it misrepresents the malleability it may imply.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 28 , Issue 1 , February 2016 , pp. 265 - 275
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abar, C. C., Jackson, K. M., Colby, S. M., & Barnett, N. P. (2014). Common and unique parenting predictors of adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 1528–1532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albert, W., Belsky, D., Crowley, D., Latendresse, S., Aliev, F., Riley, B., et al. (in press). Can genetics predict response to complex behavioral interventions? Evidence from a genetic analysis of the Fast Track Randomized Control Trial. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.Google Scholar
Aquilino, W. S., & Supple, A. J. (2001). Long-term effects of parenting practices during adolescence on well-being outcomes in young adulthood. Journal of Family Issues, 22, 289–308.Google Scholar
Armstrong, J. M., Ruttle, P. L., Burk, L. R., Costanzo, P. R., Strauman, T. J., & Essex, M. J. (2013). Early risk factors for alcohol use across high school and its covariation with deviant friends. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74, 746–756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aron, E. N. (2010). Psychotherapy and the highly sensitive person: Improving outcomes for that minority of people who are the majority of clients. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Aron, E. N., & Aron, A. (1997). Sensory-processing sensitivity and its relation to introversion and emotionality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 345–368.Google Scholar
Ary, D. V., Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., & Hops, H. (1999). Adolescent problem behavior: The influence of parents and peers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 217–230.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2015). The hidden efficacy of interventions: Gene x environment experiments from a differential susceptibility perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 381–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Mesman, J., Alink, L. R. A., & Juffer, F. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on daily cortisol moderated by dopamine receptor D4: A randomized control trial on 1- to 3-year-olds screened for externalizing behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 805–820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, G. M., & Farrell, M. P. (1992). Parental support and control as predictors of adolescent drinking, delinquency, and related problem behaviors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 763–776.Google Scholar
Barnes, G. M., Reifman, A. S., Farrell, M. P., & Dintcheff, B. A. (2000). The effects of parenting on the development of adolescent alcohol misuse: A six-wave latent growth model. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 175–186.Google Scholar
Beach, S. R. H., Brody, G. H., Lei, M.-K., & Philibert, R. A. (2010). Differential susceptibility to parenting among African American youths: Testing the DRD4 hypothesis. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, 513–521.Google Scholar
Belsky, J. (2005). Differential susceptibility to rearing influences: An evolutionary hypothesis and some evidence. In Ellis, B. & Bjorklund, D. (Eds.), Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development (pp. 139–163). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). For better and for worse: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., Newman, D. A., Widaman, K. F., Rodkin, P., Pluess, M., Fraley, R. C., et al. (2014). Differential susceptibility to effects of maternal sensitivity? A study of candidate plasticity genes. Development and Psychopathology. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2013). Beyond risk, resilience, and dysregulation: Phenotypic plasticity and human development. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1243–1261.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Pluess, M., & Widaman, K. F. (2013). Confirmatory and competitive evaluation of alternative gene–environment interaction hypotheses. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1135–1143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2008). Infant temperament, parenting, and externalizing behavior in first grade: A test of the differential susceptibility hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 124–131.Google Scholar
Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Tremblay, R. E., & Lavoie, F. (2001). Reactive and proactive aggression: Predictions to physical violence in different contexts and moderating effects of parental monitoring and caregiving behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 293–304.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-F., & Beach, S. R. H. (2013). Differential susceptibility to prevention: GABAergic, dopaminergic, and multilocus effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 863–871.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-F., Beach, S. R. H., Kogan, S. M., Yu, T., DiClemente, R. J., et al. (2014). Differential sensitivity to prevention programming: A dopaminergic polymorphism-enhanced prevention effect on protective parenting and adolescent substance use. Health Psychology, 33, 182–191.Google Scholar
Burk, L. R., Armstrong, J. M., Goldsmith, H. H., Klein, M. H., Strauman, T. J., Costanzo, P., et al. (2011). Sex, temperament, and family context: How the interaction of early factors differentially predict adolescent alcohol use and are mediated by proximal adolescent factors. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25, 1–15.Google Scholar
Burnette, M. L., Oshri, A., Lax, R., Richards, D., & Ragbeer, S. N. (2012). Pathways from harsh parenting to adolescent antisocial behavior: A multidomain test of gender moderation. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 857–870.Google Scholar
Cablova, L., Pazderkova, K., & Miovsky, M. (2014). Parenting styles and alcohol use among children and adolescents: A systematic review. Drugs—Education Prevention and Policy, 21, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Newman, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Behavioral observations at age 3 years predict adult psychiatric disorders—Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1033–1039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J., Woodhouse, S. S., Sherman, L. J., Stupica, B., & Lejuez, C. W. (2011). Enhancing infant attachment security: An examination of treatment efficacy and differential susceptibility. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 131–148.Google Scholar
Castellanos-Ryan, N., & Conrod, P. J. (2011). Personality correlates of the common and unique variance across conduct disorder and substance misuse symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 563–576.Google Scholar
Castellanos-Ryan, N., Parent, S., Vitaro, F., Tremblay, R. E., & Séguin, J. R. (2013). Pubertal development, personality and substance use: A 10-year longitudinal study from childhood to adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 782–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castellanos-Ryan, N., Séguin, J. R., Vitaro, F., Parent, S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2013). Impact of a 2-year multimodal intervention for disruptive 6-year-olds on substance use in adolescence: Randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 203, 188–195.Google Scholar
Clark, D. B., & Winters, K. C. (2002). Measuring risks and outcomes in substance use disorders prevention research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1207–1223.Google Scholar
Clark, H. K., Shamblen, S. R., Ringwalt, C. L., & Hanley, S. (2012). Predicting high risk adolescents’ substance use over time: The role of parental monitoring. Journal of Primary Prevention, 33, 67–77.Google Scholar
Clark, L. A. (2005). Temperament as a unifying basis for personality and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 505–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleveland, H., Schlomer, S., Vandenbergh, D., Feinberg, M., Greenberg, M., Spoth, R., et al. (in press). Influences of interventions, parenting, and the dopamine receptor D4 gene on alcohol use in early adolescence. Development and Psychopathology.Google Scholar
Cohen, W. B., Maiersperger, T. K., Gower, S. T., & Turner, D. P. (2003). An improved strategy for regression of biophysical variables and Landsat ETM+ data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 84, 561–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colder, C. R., & Chassin, L. (1997). Affectivity and impulsivity: Temperament risk for adolescent alcohol involvement. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 11, 83–97.Google Scholar
Conner, B. T., & Lochman, J. E. (2010). Comorbid conduct disorder and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology—Science and Practice, 17, 337–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daw, J., Boardman, J. D., Peterson, R., Smolen, A., Haberstick, B. C., Ehringer, M. A., et al. (2014). The interactive effect of neighborhood peer cigarette use and 5HTTLPR genotype on individual cigarette use. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 1804–1810.Google Scholar
Daw, J., Shanahan, M., Harris, K. M., Smolen, A., Haberstick, B., & Boardman, J. D. (2013). Genetic sensitivity to peer behaviors: 5HTTLPR, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 54, 92–108.Google Scholar
Degnan, K. A., Almas, A. N., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Temperament and the environment in the etiology of childhood anxiety. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 497–517.Google Scholar
Degnan, K. A., & Fox, N. A. (2007). Behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorders: Multiple levels of a resilience process. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 729–746.Google Scholar
Dick, D. M. (2011). Gene–environment interaction in psychological traits and disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 383–409.Google Scholar
DiClemente, R. J., Wingood, G. M., Crosby, R., Sionean, C., Cobb, B. K., Harrington, K., et al. (2001). Parental monitoring: Association with adolescents’ risk behaviors. Pediatrics, 107, 1363–1368.Google Scholar
Dretzke, J., Davenport, C., Frew, E., Barlow, J., Stewart-Brown, S., Bayliss, S., et al. (2009). The clinical effectiveness of different parenting programmes for children with conduct problems: A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 3, 7.Google Scholar
Duncan, L. E., & Keller, M. C. (2011). A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1041–1049.Google Scholar
Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., Biglan, A., & Ary, D. (1998). Contributions of the social context to the development of adolescent substance use: A multivariate latent growth modeling approach. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 50, 57–71.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary–neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 7–28.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., & Lynskey, M. T. (1997). Physical punishment/maltreatment during childhood and adjustment in young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21, 617–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 115–134.Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., & Fagot, B. I. (2003). Parental depression, parenting and family adjustment, and child effortful control: Explaining externalizing behaviors for preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 143–177.Google Scholar
Giancola, P. R., & Mezzich, A. C. (2003). Executive functioning, temperament, and drug use involvement in adolescent females with a substance use disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 857–866.Google Scholar
Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549–576.Google Scholar
Gustavson, K., von Soest, T., Karevold, E., & Roysamb, E. (2012). Attrition and generalizability in longitudinal studies: Findings from a 15-year population-based study and a Monte Carlo simulation study. BMC Public Health, 12, 918–928.Google Scholar
Haapasalo, J., & Tremblay, R. E. (1994). Physically agressive boys from ages 6 to 12: Family background, parenting behavior, and prediction of delinquency. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 1044–1052.Google Scholar
Hartman, C., Hopfer, C., Corley, R., Hewitt, J., & Stallings, M. (2013). Using Cloninger's temperament scales to predict substance-related behaviors in adolescents: A prospective longitudinal study. American Journal on Addictions, 22, 246–251.Google Scholar
Hummel, A., Shelton, K. H., Heron, J., Moore, L., & van den Bree, M. B. M. (2013). A systematic review of the relationships between family functioning, pubertal timing and adolescent substance use. Addiction, 108, 487–496.Google Scholar
Hussong, A. M., Jones, D. J., Stein, G. L., Baucom, D. H., & Boeding, S. (2011). An internalizing pathway to alcohol use and disorder. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25, 390–404.Google Scholar
Institut de la statistique du Québec. (2007). Enquête québécoise sur le tabac, l'alcool, la drogue et le jeu chez les élèves du secondaire, 2006. Sainte-Foy, QC: Publications du Québec.Google Scholar
Institut de la statistique du Québec. (2009). Enquête québécoise sur le tabac, l'alcool, la drogue et le jeu chez les élèves du secondaire, 2008. Sainte-Foy, QC: Publications du Québec.Google Scholar
Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2013). Monitoring the Future national findings on drug use: 2012 overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.Google Scholar
Kaynak, O., Meyers, K., Caldeira, K. M., Vincent, K. B., Winters, K. C., & Arria, A. M. (2013). Relationships among parental monitoring and sensation seeking on the development of substance use disorder among college students. Addictive Behaviors, 38, 1457–1463.Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S. R., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411–424.Google Scholar
Laucht, M., Blomeyer, D., Buchmann, A. F., Treutlein, J., Schmidt, M. H., Esser, G., et al. (2012). Catechol-o-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype, parenting practices and adolescent alcohol use: Testing the differential susceptibility hypothesis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 351–359.Google Scholar
Lei, M.-K., Simons, R. L., Edmond, M. B., Simons, L. G., & Cutrona, C. E. (2014). The effect of neighborhood disadvantage, social ties, and genetic variation on the antisocial behavior of African American women: A multilevel analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1113–1128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J. (2008). Anxiousness, frustration, and effortful control as moderators of the relation between parenting and adjustment in middle-childhood. Social Development, 17, 554–577.Google Scholar
Lengua, L. J., Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., & West, S. G. (2000). The additive and interactive effects of parenting and temperament in predicting adjustment problems of children of divorce. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 232–244.Google Scholar
Leung, R. K., Toumbourou, J. W., & Hemphill, S. A. (2014). The effect of peer influence and selection processes on adolescent alcohol use: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Health Psychology Review, 8, 426–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., & Pears, K. C. (2005). Childhood temperament and family environment as predictors of internalizing and externalizing trajectories from ages 5 to 17. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 505–520.Google Scholar
Lloyd, J., & Anthony, J. (2003). Hanging out with the wrong crowd: How much difference can parents make in an urban environment? Journal of Urban Health, 80, 383–399.Google Scholar
Marschall-Lévesque, S., Castellanos-Ryan, N., Vitaro, F., & Séguin, J. R. (2014). Moderators of the association between peer and target adolescent substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 48–70.Google Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Simons, A. D. (1991). Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: Implications for the depressive disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 406–425.Google Scholar
Muller, D., Judd, C. M., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2005). When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 852–863.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). MPlus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author.Google Scholar
Nederhof, E., Belsky, J., Ormel, J., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2012). Effects of divorce on Dutch boys’ and girls’ externalizing behavior in Gene × Environment perspective: Diathesis–stress or differential susceptibility in the Dutch Tracking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey study? Development and Psychopathology, 24, 929–939.Google Scholar
Newbury-Birch, D., Walker, J., Leah, A., Beyer, F., Brown, N., Jackson, K., et al. (2009). Impact of alcohol consumption on young people: A systematic review of published reviews (Research Report DCSF-RR067). Newcastle: Newcastle University, Department for Children, Schools and Families.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 220–246.Google Scholar
O'Neil, K. A., Conner, B. T., & Kendall, P. C. (2011). Internalizing disorders and substance use disorders in youth: Comorbidity, risk, temporal order, and implications for intervention. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 104–112.Google Scholar
Park, A., Sher, K. J., Todorov, A. A., & Heath, A. C. (2011). Interaction between the DRD4 VNTR polymorphism and proximal and distal environments in alcohol dependence during emerging and young adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 585–595.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B., & Ramsey, E. (1990). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 329–335.Google Scholar
Pinchevsky, G., Arria, A., Caldeira, K., Garnier-Dykstra, L., Vincent, K., & O'Grady, K. (2012). Marijuana exposure opportunity and initiation during college: Parent and peer influences. Prevention Science, 13, 43–54.Google Scholar
Pitzer, M., Jennen-Steinmetz, C., Esser, G., Schmidt, M. H., & Laucht, M. (2011). Differential susceptibility to environmental influences: The role of early temperament and parenting in the development of externalizing problems. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52, 650–658.Google Scholar
Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2009). Differential susceptibility to rearing experience: The case of childcare. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 396–404.Google Scholar
Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2010). Differential susceptibility to parenting and quality child care. Developmental Psychology, 46, 379–390.Google Scholar
Poehlmann, J., Hane, A., Burnson, C., Maleck, S., Hamburger, E., & Shah, P. E. (2012). Preterm infants who are prone to distress: Differential effects of parenting on 36-month behavioral and cognitive outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1018–1025.Google Scholar
Ramchandani, P. G., van IJzendoorn, M., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2010). Differential susceptibility to fathers’ care and involvement: The moderating effect of infant reactivity. Family Science, 1, 93–101.Google Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Newman, D. A., Fraley, R. C., Haltigan, J. D., Groh, A. M., & Haydon, K. C. (2012). Distinguishing differential susceptibility from diathesis–stress: Recommendations for evaluating interaction effects. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 389–409.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The children's behavior questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Eisenberg, N. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ryan, S. M., Jorm, A. F., & Lubman, D. I. (2010). Parenting factors associated with reduced adolescent alcohol use: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 774–783.Google Scholar
Saban, A., & Flisher, A. J. (2010). The association between psychopathology and substance use in young people: A review of the literature. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42, 37–47.Google Scholar
Santé Québec, , Jetté, M., Desrosiers, H., & Tremblay, R. E. (1997). “En 2001… j'aurai 5 ans!” Enquête auprès des bébés de 5 mois. Rapport préliminaire de l’Étude longitudinale du développement des enfants du Québec (ÉLDEQ). Montréal: Gouvernement du Québec, Ministère de la Santé et des Services Sociaux.Google Scholar
Scott, S., & O'Connor, T. G. (2012). An experimental test of differential susceptibility to parenting among emotionally-dysregulated children in a randomized controlled trial for oppositional behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1184–1193.Google Scholar
Sher, K. J. (1991). Children of alcoholics: A critical appraisal of theory and research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Smeekens, S., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., & van Bakel, H. J. A. (2007). Multiple determinants of externalizing behavior in 5-year-olds: A longitudinal model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 347–361.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. (1995). National Longitudinal Survey of Children: Survey Instruments for 1994–95, Data Collection, Cycle 1 (89F0077XIE). Ottawa, ON: Author.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. (1998). Content and validation of NLSCY data. National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 2—Microdata User Guide. Ottawa, ON: Author.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L., Fletcher, A., & Darling, N. (1994). Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. Pediatrics, 93, 1060–1064.Google Scholar
Stice, E., & Gonzales, N. (1998). Adolescent temperament moderates the relation of parenting to antisocial behavior and substance use. Journal of Adolescent Research, 13, 5–31.Google Scholar
Strayhorn, J. M., & Weidman, C. S. (1988). A parent practices scale and its relation to parent and child mental health. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 613–618.Google Scholar
Stright, A. D., Kelley, K., & Gallagher, K. C. (2008). Infant temperament moderates relations between maternal parenting in early childhood and children's adjustment in first grade. Child Development, 79, 186–200.Google Scholar
Swadi, H. (1999). Individual risk factors for adolescent substance use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 55, 209–224.Google Scholar
Tornay, L., Michaud, P. A., Gmel, G., Wilson, M. L., Berchtold, A., & Suris, J. C. (2013). Parental monitoring: A way to decrease substance use among Swiss adolescents? European Journal of Pediatrics, 172, 1229–1234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Seguin, J. R., Zoccolillo, M., Zelazo, P. D., Boivin, M., et al. (2004). Physical aggression during early childhood: Trajectories and predictors. Pediatrics, 114, E43–E50.Google Scholar
Tubman, J. G., & Windle, M. (1995). Continuity of difficult temperament in adolescence—Relations with depression, life events, family support, and substance use across a one-year period. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 133–153.Google Scholar
van Aken, C., Junger, M., Verhoeven, M., van Aken, M. A. G., & Dekovic, M. (2007). The interactive effects of temperament and maternal parenting on toddlers externalizing behaviours. Infant and Child Development, 16, 553–572.Google Scholar
van den Hoofdakker, B. J., Nauta, M. H., Dijck-Brouwer, D. A. J., van der Veen-Mulders, L., Sytema, S., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., et al. (2012). Dopamine transporter gene moderates response to behavioral parent training in children with ADHD: A pilot study. Developmental Psychology, 48, 567–574.Google Scholar
Velderman, M. K., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2006). Effects of attachment-based interventions on maternal sensitivity and infant attachment: Differential susceptibility of highly reactive infants. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 266–274.Google Scholar
Weinberger, D. A., & Bartholomew, K. (1996). Social–emotional adjustment and patterns of alcohol use among young adults. Journal of Personality, 64, 495–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wennberg, P., & Bohman, M. (2002). Childhood temperament and adult alcohol habits—A prospective longitudinal study from age 4 to age 36. Addictive Behaviors, 27, 63–74.Google Scholar
Widaman, K. F., Helm, J. L., Castro-Schilo, L., Pluess, M., Stallings, M. C., & Belsky, J. (2012). Distinguishing ordinal and disordinal interactions. Psychological Methods, 17, 615–622.Google Scholar
Willem, L., Bijttebier, P., Claes, L., Sools, J., Vandenbussche, I., & Nigg, J. T. (2011). Temperamental characteristics of adolescents with substance abuse and/or dependence: A case-control study. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1094–1098.Google Scholar
Wills, T. A., & Dishion, T. J. (2004). Temperament and adolescent substance use: A transactional analysis of emerging self-control. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 69–81.Google Scholar
Windle, M. (1991). The difficult temperament in adolescence: Associations with substance use, family support, and problem behaviors. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 310–315.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, M. (1999). Vulnerability to psychopathology: A biosocial model. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar