The clinical presentation of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) varies not only across patients but over the course of the disorder. This diversity indicates that OCD is a heterogeneous disorder, which may have an important impact on psychopathological, longitudinal, genetic, and treatment research. To better understand OCD heterogeneity, more homogeneous phenotypic descriptions are necessary to delimiting clinically meaningful subgroups of patients. Besides phenotypic descriptions, another method of delimiting OCD patient subgroups includes the search for endophenotypes (extended phenotypes) based on neurophysiological, immunological, genetic, neuropsychological, or neuroanatomic (neuroimaging) paradigms. This article will describe some strategies that deal with OCD heterogeneity, including the identification of more homogeneous phenotypical categories, an improved understanding of obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions and how to use them as quantitative traits, and broadening the diagnostic boundaries of OCD to include other related conditions. The relevance and limitations of each approach are also discussed. Since the etiological mechanisms associated with the expressions of OCD are unknown, there is probably not one but several heuristic strategies to search for more homogeneous OCD subgroup, that combined may provide the most fruitful results.

The presentations and clinical courses of patients with bipolar disorder differ greatly by gender. In addition, medical therapy must be tailored differently for men and women because of emerging safety concerns unique to the female reproductive system. In November 2005, these topics were explored by a panel of experts in psychiatry, neurology, and reproductive health at a closed roundtable meeting in Dallas, Texas. This clinical information monograph summarizes the highlights of that meeting.

Compared to men with bipolar disorder, women have more pervasive depressive symptoms and experience more major depressive episodes. They are also at higher risk for obesity and certain other medical and psychiatric comorbidities. Mood changes across the menstrual cycle are common, although the severity, timing, and type of changes are variable. Bipolar disorder is frequently associated with menstrual abnormalities and ovarian dysfunction, including polycystic ovarian syndrome. Although some cases of menstrual disturbance precede the treatment of bipolar disorder, it is possible that valproate and/or antipsychotic treatment may play a contributory role in young women.

Pregnancy does not protect against mood episodes in untreated women. Maintenance of euthymia during pregnancy is critical because relapse during this period strongly predicts a difficult postpartum course. Suspending therapy in the first months of pregnancy may be an option for some women with mild-to-moderate illness, or those with a long history of euthymia during pre-pregnancy treatment. However, a mood stabilizer should be reintroduced either in the later stages of pregnancy or in the immediate postpartum period. Preliminary data suggest that fetal exposure to some mood stabilizers may raise the risk of major congenital malformations and neurodevelopmental delays. For women planning to become pregnant, clinicians may consider switching to other drugs before conception. The value and drawbacks of breastfeeding during treatment must be considered in partnership with the patient, with close monitoring of nursing infants thereafter. The risks and benefits of medical treatment for women with bipolar disorder should be carefully reconsidered at each stage of their reproductive lives, with a flexible approach that is responsive to the changing needs of patients and their families.

The Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) study was undertaken to provide a valid assessment of the differences between conventional and atypical antipsychotics and among the atypicals themselves in patients with schizophrenia. The CATIE investigators reported that while none of the study medications were ideal, olanzapine was the most effective in terms of treatment discontinuation, and there were no significant differences in effectiveness between the conventional antipsychotic perphenazine and the atypicals quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone. Each drug differed slightly in rates of side effects, with more patients discontinuing perphenazine due to extrapyramidal side effects and more patients discontinuing olanzapine due to weight gain and metabolic effects. In order for data from phase 1 of the CATIE study to be interpreted within the appropriate context, physicians must understand how aspects of study design and statistical methods affect interpretation, and how this trial weighs against other data in the literature. This article enumerates the factors that complicate our understanding of the CATIE results and compares these findings with those from previously published meta-analyses. It is clear that therapeutic and side effects of antipsychotics vary from person to person. The goal of schizophrenia management is to maintain pharmacotherapeutic efficacy and tolerability over the long-term in order to maximize treatment adherence and benefits. What should emerge from CATIE is a renewed commitment to tailor schizophrenia treatment to the individual patient for long-term management.

Evidence-based medicine (EBM) enables clinicians to justify decision making, enhances the quality of medical practice, identifies unanswered research questions, and ensures the efficient practice of medicine. Implementation of evidence-based mental health programs requires education, time, and improved effort by administration, regulatory, and clinical professionals. Essential to these efforts are consistent incentives for change, effective training materials, and clear clinical guidelines. Guidelines exist within the framework of EBM. Good guidelines are simple, specific, and user friendly, focus on key clinical decisions, are based on research evidence, and present evidence and recommendations in a concise and accessible format. Potential limitations of guidelines to improve clinical outcomes in anxiety disorders are the widespread distribution of anxiety symptoms in primary care, health inequalities across patient groups, persistent misconceptions regarding psychotropic drugs, and low confidence in using simple psychological treatments. Clinical guidelines generally specify therapeutic areas covered and not covered, but often there is no mention of cost or cost effectiveness of treatment. Guidelines can inform clinical decision making, but administrators of drug formularies may regard themselves as being primarily responsible for limiting costs and access to certain medications, even if these decisions are at odds with guideline recommendations.

There is a significant heritability of drug addiction disorders, but potential genes that may underlie such vulnerability have not been clearly identified. Common neurobiological candidates for drug abuse include genes related to dopamine, opioid neuropeptide, and glutamate transmission that play important roles in drug reward and inhibitory control. This article provides an overview of genetic polymorphisms linked to these neurobiological systems, particularly in relation to psychostimulant- and opioid-addiction vulnerability.

Sexual dysfunction is a frequently encountered comorbid condition in patients with many medical and psychiatric conditions, such as epilepsy and depression. Most depressed patients experience some type ofsexual dysfunction, decreased sexual desire being the most common. The association of sexual dysfunction with epilepsy is less clear. Changes in sex hormone levels are common in patients with epilepsy and may be attributable to the disease or to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Sexual dysfunction associated with depression or epilepsy is generally treated according to standard guidelines for the management of sexual disorders,since data from special populations are not available. The most common forms of female sexual dysfunction are lack of sexual desire and difficulty achieving orgasm. There are no approved pharmacotherapies forfemale hypoactive sexual desire disorder or female orgasmic disorder. Female sexual arousal disorder is treated with estrogen replacement therapy when indicated or vaginal lubricants. The most common male sexual dysfunction disorders are premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction.  Phosphodiesterase type-5 inhibitor drugs are now the first-line treatment for erectile dysfunction, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and topical anesthetic creams are nonapproved but effective treatments for premature ejaculation. Testosterone and aromatase inhibitors have been used investigationally to treat sexual dysfunction in men taking AEDs. Patient education and follow-up appointments are essential to ensure optimal outcomes of pharmacologic treatments for sexual dysfunction.

Introduction: Psychogenic disorders, also referred to as somatoform, conversion, somatization, hysteria, and medically unexplained symptoms, are among the most challenging disorders to diagnose and treat. Psychogenic movement disorders are increasingly encountered in specialized clinics, and represent ~15% of all patients evaluated in the Baylor College of Medicine Movement Disorders Clinic.

Objective: To characterize psychogenic tremor and provide data on prognosis and long-term outcome in a large group of patients with psychogenic tremor followed in a movement disorders clinic.

Methods: Patients evaluated at the Baylor College of Medicine Movement Disorders Clinic in Houston, Texas, between 1990 and 2003 with the diagnosis of psychogenic movement disorder (PMD), who consented to be interviewed, were administered a structured questionnaire designed to assess current motor and psychological function.

Results: psychogenic tremor is the most common PMD, accounting for 4.1 % of all patients evaluated in our clinic. We were able to obtain clinical information on a total of 228 of 517 (44.1%) patients with PMD, followed for a mean of 3.4±2.8 years. Among the 127 patients diagnosed with psychogenic tremor, 92 (72.4%) were female, the mean age at initial evaluation was 43.7±14.1 years, and the mean duration of symptoms was 4.6±7.6 years. The following clinical features were considered to be characteristic of psychogenic tremor: abrupt onset (78.7%), distractibility (72.4%), variable amplitude and frequency (62.2%), intermittent occurrence (35.4%), inconsistent movement (29.9%), and variable direction (17.3%). Assessment of long-term outcome showed that 56.6% of patients reported improvement in their tremor. Factors predictable of a favorable outcome were elimination of stressors and patient's perception of effective treatment by the physician.

Conclusion: This largest longitudinal study of patients with psychogenic tremor provides data on the clinical characteristics and natural history of this most common PMD. The accurate diagnosis of psychogenic tremor is based not only on exclusion of other causes but is also dependent on positive clinical criteria, the presence of which should avoid unnecessary investigation. The prognosis of psychogenic tremor may be improved with appropriate behavioral and pharmacologic management.

Can a medical illness or its treatment qualify as an emotionally traumatic event and can it cause posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms? If so, can the view of a medical illness as a traumatic experience enhance our ability to understand patients' adjustment to illness and their emotional reactions to it? Is it important to identify posttraumatic symptoms and try to address them in medically ill patients? These questions form the backbone for this review. Because many questions remain unanswered (or the answers are not definitive yet), we concisely summarize the issues and present our own view of the most pressing questions for further research.

Escitalopram is the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) most recently approved for use in the United States. It is structurally related to citalopram, but is felt to have a more tolerable side-effect profile than its parent compound. Side effects are not generally serious and include headache, diarrhea, and nausea. While hyponatremia and the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) have been associated with treatment with other SSRIs, there has only been one case of escitalopram-induced SIADH reported in the literature to date. We now report another case of a patient who developed SIADH after being treated with escitalopram for 4 weeks. The patient's hyponatremia improved following the discontinuation of escitalopram. Clinicians should be aware of this uncommon but significant side effect of SSRIs and monitor high-risk patients for the development of SIADH.

Many patients who present physical symptoms that their doctors cannot explain by physical disease have persisting symptoms and impairment. An influential view has been that such symptoms are the somatization of emotional distress, but there has also been concern that medical practice contributes to shaping these presentations. Analysis of patients' accounts indicate that they approach these consultations with a sense of being the expert on the nature and reality of their symptoms and, in primary care at least, they seek convincing explanations, engagement, and support.They often describe doctors as doubting that their symptoms are real and as not taking their symptoms seriously. Observational research has demonstrated that patients presenting idiopathic symptoms in primary care generally provide cues to their need for explanation or to psychosocial difficulties. Their doctors tend to provide simple reassurance rather than detailed explanations, and often disregard psychosocial cues. Patients seem to intensify their presentation in consequence, elaborating and extending their accounts of their symptoms, perhaps in the effort to engage their doctors and demonstrate the reality of their symptoms. When doctors propose physical investigation and treatment in response to such escalating presentation, they thereby inadvertently somatize patients' psychological presentation. Consultations, therefore, have elements of contest, whereby patients seek engagement from doctors who seek to disengage. Although provision of a medical label, such as a functional diagnosis, can legitimize patients' complaints and avoid contest, this is at the risk of indicating that medicine can take responsibility for managing the symptoms. More collaborative relationships rely on doctors recognizing patients' authority in knowing about their symptoms, and providing tangible explanations that make sense to the patient and allow them to tolerate or manage the symptoms. Researchers need to study how doctors can best achieve these aims within routine consultations.

Behavioral addictions, such as pathological gambling, kleptomania, pyromania, compulsive buying, and compulsive sexual behavior, represent significant public health concerns and are associated with high rates of psychiatric comorbidity and mortality. Although research into the biology of these behaviors is still in the early stages, recent advances in the understanding of motivation, reward, and addiction have provided insight into the possible pathophysiology of these disorders. Biochemical, functional neuroimaging, genetic studies, and treatment research have suggested a strong neurobiological link between behavioral addictions and substance use disorders. Given the substantial co-occurrence of these groups of disorders, improved understanding of their relationship has important implications not only for further understanding the neurobiology of both categories of disorders but also for improving prevention and treatment strategies.

Traumatic memories, and the mechanisms by which they operate, continue to occupy a central role in the scientific investigation of risk factors for the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, empirically based studies are constrained by practical and ethical considerations and are limited to naturalistic models. Consequently, the paradigms most appropriate for the exploration of the relationship between traumatic memories and PTSD have been identified in conditions involving traumatic events where memories may be compromised. Indeed, traumatic brain injury, a condition that is commonly associated with memory impairment, has often been utilized as a naturally occurring model for the study of traumatic memory and its contribution to the development of PTSD. This article presents a critical review of these research efforts and discusses their theoretical and clinical implications.

Posttraumatic stress symptoms have been shown to occur in pediatric and adult solid-organ transplant recipients. The presence of these symptoms is associated with non-adherence to medications, increased distress, and poor outcome. Because posttraumatic stress disorder is treatable and because a transplant operation usually is an “anticipated trauma,” it is possible to address posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in transplant recipients and attempt to prevent their development. Under my direction, the pediatric liver transplant program at Mount Sinai Medical Center in NewYork City created research and clinical programs to address posttraumatic stress symptoms and their consequences. Specifically, the focus on non-adherence to immunosuppressive medications in transplant recipients who are distressed and their parents. This article begins with a review of the data that led to the decision to start these programs. I then present the basic elements that are in place, in this particular program, to address patients' needs. I end this review with preliminary outcome data that illustrate the potential impact of such an integrated approach to patient care on medical outcomes.

Sexual dysfunction is common among patients with epilepsy, but many clinicians do not include inquiries about this aspect of the patient's health in their routine evaluations. This article presents approaches for taking a sexual history and for discussing sexual problems. The utility of standardized sexual dysfunction questionnaires is reviewed and the important elements of appropriate and effective counseling are highlighted.