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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 04 April 2025
This article examines the ways in which the Sino-Canadian relationship has shaped Canadian legal structures and vice versa. The Canadian state’s anxieties about Chinese foreign policy have led to the “securitization” of various domains of domestic law, whereby the state has emphasized the national security implications of legal concepts, decisions, and regimes. This securitization may fuel discrimination towards Chinese Canadians, and the article suggests reforms that the Canadian state can adopt as it seeks to simultaneously implement a robust China strategy and avoid the mistreatment of Chinese Canadians.
Cet article examine la manière dont la relation sino-canadienne a façonné les structures juridiques canadiennes, et vice versa. Les inquiétudes de l’État canadien à l’égard de la politique étrangère chinoise ont conduit à la “sécurisation” de divers domaines du droit national, l’État mettant l’accent sur les implications de sécurité nationale des concepts, décisions et régimes juridiques. Cette sécurisation peut alimenter la discrimination envers les Canadiens d’origine chinoise et l’article suggère des réformes que l’État canadien peut adopter alors qu’il cherche simultanément à mettre en œuvre une stratégie chinoise robuste et à éviter les mauvais traitements envers les Canadiens d’origine chinoise.
1 See e.g. Labrecque, Charles-Louis & Harrison, Scott, “Canadian Provinces and Foreign Policy in Asia” (2018) 73:3 Intl J 429 Google Scholar; Kirkey, Christopher et al, “Charting Quebec’s Engagement with the International Community” (2016) 46:2 American Rev Can Studies 135 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
2 See Ramesh Thakur, “Diaspora Politics Blow Up Canada-India Relations,” Toda Peace Institute (28 September 2023), online: <toda.org/global-outlook/2023/diaspora-politics-blow-up-canadaindia-relations.html>.
3 See Stephanie Nebehay, “1.5 Million Muslims Could Be Detained in China’s Xinjiang—Academic,” Reuters (13 March 2019), online: <www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN1QU2NX/>.
4 See Amy Hawkins & Helen Davidson, “‘The Old Days Are No More’: Hong Kong Goes Quiet as Security Laws Tighten Their Grip,” The Guardian (11 April 2024), online: <www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/12/hong-kong-national-security-law-2020-impacts>.
5 See “What Is the South China Sea Dispute?” BBC News (7 July 2023), online: <www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13748349>.
6 See Helen Davidson, “China’s Act of ‘Hostage Diplomacy’ Comes to End as Two Canadians Freed,” The Guardian (25 September 2021), online: <www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/25/canadian-pm-trudeau-says-detained-citizens-michael-kovrig-and-michael-spavor-have-left-china>.
7 Catharine Tunney, “Scientist Fired from Winnipeg Disease Lab Intentionally Worked to Benefit China; CSIS Report,” CBC News (28 February 2024), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/politics/winnipeg-lab-firing-documents-released-china-1.7128865>.
8 Lim, Preston, “Sino-Canadian Relations in the Age of Justin Trudeau” (2020) 26:1 Can Foreign Policy J 25 at 26–27Google Scholar.
9 Ibid at 31.
10 House of Commons, A Threat to Canadian Sovereignty: National Security Dimensions of the Canada — People’s Republic of China Relationship: Interim Report of the Special Committee on the Canada-People’s Republic of China Relationship, chaired by Ken Hardie (May 2023) at 3–4.
11 Global Affairs Canada, Canada’s Indo-Pacific Strategy (Ottawa: Global Affairs Canada, 2022) at 20 Google Scholar.
12 Mark Jia, “American Law in the New Global Conflict,” New York UL Rev (forthcoming) at 4, online: <papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4545459>.
13 See e.g. ibid; Lewis, Margaret K, “Criminalizing China” (2020) 111:1 J Crim L & Criminology 145 Google Scholar; Kim, Andrew Chongseh, “Prosecuting Chinese ‘Spies’: An Empirical Analysis of the Economic Espionage Act” (2018) 40:2 Cardozo L Rev 749 Google Scholar; Erie, Matthew S, “Property as National Security” (2024) 2024:1 Wis L Rev 255 Google Scholar.
14 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part 1 of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11 [Charter].
15 Given my work as counsel to a participant before the Public Inquiry into Foreign Interference in Federal Electoral Processes and Democratic Institutions, I have chosen not to discuss the recent transformation of Canadian electoral law. The impact of Sino-Canadian relations upon Canadian elections law (and vice versa) is a worthwhile field of inquiry, and I hope that another scholar will address it in the future.
16 Mikkaela Salamatin, “The Strategy of (National) Securitization” (2021) at 2, online: <papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3960739>.
17 Heath, J Benton, “Making Sense of Security” (2022) 116:2 Am J Intl L 289 at 291Google Scholar.
18 Daniel W Drezner, “How Everything Became National Security,” Foreign Affairs (September–October 2024).
19 Ibid.
20 Roe, Paul, “Is Securitization a ‘Negative’ Concept? Revisiting the Normative Debate over Normal versus Extraordinary Politics” (2012) 43:3 Security Dialogue 249 at 250Google Scholar. See also Schmitt, Carl, The Concept of the Political (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
21 See Botwinick, Aryeh, “Same/Other versus Friend/Enemy: Levinas contra Schmitt” in Meierhenrich, Jens & Simons, Oliver, eds, The Oxford Handbook of Carl Schmitt (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017) 338 Google Scholar.
22 William E Scheuerman, “States of Emergency” in Meierhenrich & Simons, supra note 21, 547 at 547.
23 Roe, supra note 20 at 251–53.
24 Robert Malley & Jon Finer, “The Long Shadow of 9/11: How Counterterrorism Warps U.S. Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs (July–August 2018).
25 d’Appollonia, Ariane Chebel, Frontiers of Fear: Immigration and Insecurity in the United States and Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012) at 1–2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
26 Roe, supra note 20 at 250–51.
27 Heath, supra note 17 at 338.
28 Thierry Balzacq, “The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context” (2005) 11:2 European J Intl Relations 171 at 171 [emphasis in original].
29 Ibid at 173.
30 Colomé-Menéndez, Desirée, Koops, Joachim A. & Weggemans, Daan, “A Country of Immigrants No More? The Securitization of Immigration in the National Security Strategies of the United States of America” (2021) 7:1 Global Affairs 1 at 7Google Scholar [emphasis in original].
31 Sirleaf, Matiangai VS, “Confronting the Color Line in National Security” in Sirleaf, Matiangai VS, ed, Race and National Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 2023) 3 at 3–4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
32 See especially Porter, Patrick, Military Orientalism: Eastern War through Western Eyes (London: C Hurst & Co Publishers, 2009)Google Scholar.
33 Sirleaf, supra note 31 at 11.
34 See ibid at 3.
35 See e.g. Mishal Reja, “Trump’s ‘Chinese Virus’ Tweet Helped Lead to Rise in Racist Anti-Asian Twitter Content: Study,” ABC News (18 March 2021), online: <abcnews.go.com/Health/trumps-chinese-virus-tweet-helped-lead-rise-racist/story?id=76530148>.
36 Richard Zussman, “Horgan ‘Deeply’ Troubled by 717% Increase in Anti-Asian Hate Crimes in Vancouver,” Global News (18 February 2021), online: <globalnews.ca/news/7647135/horgan-bc-presser-feb-18/#:~:text=The%20717%20per%20cent%20increase,to%2098%20cases%20in%202020>.
37 “Canada-China Tensions and the Impact on Canada’s Asian Diaspora,” Angus Reid Institute (12 July 2023), online: <angusreid.org/anti-asian-racism-canada-china/#gsc.tab=0>.
38 Jia, supra note 12 at 29.
39 Lewis, supra note 13 at 205.
40 See Jo Inge Bekkevold, “Why China Is Not a Superpower,” Foreign Policy (2 March 2023), online: <foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/02/china-superpower-us-new-cold-war-rivalry-geopolitics/>.
41 Qu v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) (CA), 2001 FCA 399 [Qu].
42 Ibid at para 9; Immigration Act, SC 1976–77, c 52.
43 Qu, supra note 41 at paras 11–15.
44 Ibid at para 50.
45 Stewart Bell, “Winnipeg Man Was Member of Chinese Military Branch behind Cyber Attacks on Canada, Officials Allege,” Global News (25 March 2024), online: <globalnews.ca/news/10351645/winnipeg-pla-cyber-attacks-canada/>.
46 See Qu, supra note 41 at paras 30–51.
47 Wei William Tao, “Broader Application and Implications: A Federal Court (Non-IRB) Case Law Year in Review for 2023” (10 January 2024) at 1.1.2, online: SSRN <papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4668394>.
48 Ibid at 1.1.10.
49 Geng v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2023 FC 773 at paras 1–2 [Geng]; Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, SC 2001, c 27.
50 Geng, supra note 49 at para 75.
51 Ibid at para 5.
52 Li v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration), 2023 FC 1753 [Li].
53 Ibid at para 16.
54 Ibid at para 59.
55 Ibid at para 47.
56 Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v Xu, 2024 FC 267 [Xu].
57 Ibid at para 2.
58 Ibid at para 16.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid at para 35.
61 Geng, supra note 49 at para 66.
62 Ibid at para 67.
63 Li, supra note 52 at para 75.
64 See ibid at paras 25–28.
65 See e.g. Geng, supra note 49 at para 14.
66 Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) v Chiarelli, [1992] 1 SCR 711 at 733, 90 DLR (4th) 289.
67 See Global Affairs Canada, supra note 11 at 20.
68 Geng, supra note 49 at para 60.
69 Xu, supra note 56 at para 43.
70 Jia, supra note 12 at 29.
71 United States Attorney’s Office, District of Massachusetts, “Former Harvard University Professor Sentenced for Lying About His Affiliation with Wuhan University of Technology; China’s Thousand Talents Program; and Filing False Tax Returns,” press release (26 April 2023), online: <www.justice.gov/usao-ma/pr/former-harvard-university-professor-sentenced-lying-about-his-affiliation-wuhan>.
72 Mark Pratt, “Ex-Harvard Prof Sentenced, Fined for Lying About China Ties,” Associated Press (26 April 2023), online: <apnews.com/article/harvard-professor-china-thousand-talents-sentencing-9d810d5fc7b08ff142b530546c7e1689>.
73 Robert Fife et al, “Infectious-disease Scientist Fired from Winnipeg Laboratory Surfaces in China,” Globe and Mail (19 March 2024), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-infectious-disease-scientist-fired-from-winnipeg-laboratory-surfaces/>.
74 Karen Pauls, “Years after Scientists Lost Security Clearances at Top Lab, There Are Still Concerns About Who Has Access,” CBC News (3 March 2024), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/university-of-manitoba-nml-1.7131271>.
75 Brennan MacDonald, “Speaker Wants Information on Fired Scientists Released, Prepares to Challenge Liberal Government in Court,” CBC News (25 June 2021), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/politics/speaker-challenge-federal-court-phac-documents-winnipeg-lab-1.6080565>.
76 Christopher Parsons, “The New Security Research Rules Threaten Universities’ Ability to Be Open and Inclusive,” Globe and Mail (14 July 2021), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-the-new-security-research-rules-threaten-universities-ability-to-be/>.
77 Robert Fife & Steven Chase, “Ottawa Imposes National-Security Risk Assessments for University Researchers Seeking Federal Funds,” Globe and Mail (12 July 2021), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-ottawa-imposes-national-security-risk-assessments-for-university/>.
78 Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, Sensitive Technology Research Areas, Catalogue No 37-44/2023 (Ottawa: Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, 2023) at 3.
79 Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, Named Research Organizations, Catalogue No 37-45/2023 (Ottawa: Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, 2023) at 4, 10.
80 See generally Antonin Scalia, “The Rule of Law as a Law of Rules” (1989) 56:4 U Chicago L Rev 1175.
81 Parsons, supra note 76.
82 Ibid.
83 Creso Sá, “Canada’s Move to Protect Research from Hostile States Is Risky and Useless,” Globe and Mail (12 March 2024), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/article-strac-canada-national-security/>.
84 Ibid.
85 Parsons, supra note 76.
86 Brian A Facey & Kevin MacDonald, Investment Canada Act: Commentary and Annotation (Toronto: LexisNexis Canada, 2023) at 189.
87 “Beijing Beida Jade Bird Universal Sci-Tech Co Ltd,” Reuters, online: <www.reuters.com/markets/companies/8095.HK/>.
88 Jeff Gray, “Ottawa’s ‘National Security’ Review a Warning to Foreign Investors,” Globe and Mail (1 July 2015), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/industry-news/the-law-page/ottawas-national-security-review-a-warning-to-foreign-investors/article25219593/>.
89 Ibid.
90 Steven Chase, “Liberals Reverse Course on Chinese Takeover of Montreal High-Tech Firm,” Globe and Mail (27 March 2017), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/liberals-reverse-course-on-chinese-deal/article34441975/>.
91 Ibid.
92 Steven Chase & Robert Fife, “Liberals Waive Security Review for Chinese Takeover of High-Tech Firm,” Globe and Mail (8 June 2017), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/liberals-waive-security-review-for-chinese-takeover-of-high-tech-firm/article35246673/>.
93 “Federal Government Blocks Sale of Construction Giant Aecon to Chinese Interests,” CBC News (23 March 2018), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-blocks-aecon-sale-china-1.4675353>.
94 Ibid.
95 Niall McGee & Robert Fife, “Ottawa Rejects Bid by China’s Shandong Gold for Canadian Miner TMAC Resources over Security Concerns,” Globe and Mail (22 December 2020), online: <www.theglobeandmail.com/business/industry-news/energy-and-resources/article-ottawa-rejects-bid-by-chinas-shandong-gold-for-canadian-miner-tmac/>.
96 Facey & Macdonald, supra note 86 at 175.
97 Ibid at 194.
98 Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, Policy Regarding Foreign Investments from State-Owned Enterprises in Critical Minerals under the Investment Canada Act (28 October 2022), online: <ised-isde.canada.ca/site/investment-canada-act/en/policy-regarding-foreign-investments-state-owned-enterprises-critical-minerals-under-investment>.
99 Ibid.
100 Sam Meredith, “US ‘Very Concerned’ About China’s Dominance as a Critical Minerals Supplier, Energy Chief Says,” CNBC (14 February 2024), online: <www.cnbc.com/2024/02/14/us-energy-chief-concerned-about-chinas-critical-minerals-dominance.html#:~:text=China%20is%20the%20undisputed%20leader,to%20low%2Dcarbon%20energy%20sources>.
101 Facey & Macdonald, supra note 86 at 196–97.
102 Act to Amend the Investment Canada Act, SC 2024, c 4.
103 Rujuta Patel et al, “Buyer Beware: Major Changes to Canada’s Foreign Investment Review Regime Passed,” Norton Rose Fulbright (3 April 2024), online: <www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/bb30178a/buyer-beware-major-changes-to-canadas-foreign-investment-review-regime-passed>.
104 “Tighten Up: Proposed Amendments to the Investment Canada Act’s National Security Provisions,” McCarthy Tétrault (12 December 2022), online: <www.mccarthy.ca/en/insights/articles/tighten-proposed-amendments-investment-canada-acts-national-security-provisions>.
105 Ibid.
106 Kristin E Eichensehr & Cathy Hwang, “National Security Creep in Corporate Transactions” (2023) 123:2 Colum L Rev 549 at 603.
107 Jason Gudofsky et al, “Canada: Spotlight on National Security Review and Proposed Legislative Amendments,” Global Competition Review (6 December 2023), online: <globalcompetitionreview.com/guide/foreign-direct-investment-regulation-guide/third-edition/article/canada-spotlight-national-security-review-and-proposed-legislative-amendments#:~:text=A%20national%20security%20review%20can%20be%20initiated%20if%20the%20government,are%20subject%20to%20intervention%20annually>.
108 Eichensehr & Hwang, supra note 106 at 603.
109 Facey & Macdonald, supra note 86 at 216.
110 Ibid at 216–17.
111 Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, “Government of Canada Orders the Wind Up of Tiktok Technology Canada, Inc. Following a National Security Review under the Investment Canada Act” (6 November 2024), online: Government of Canada <www.canada.ca/en/innovation-science-economic-development/news/2024/11/government-of-canada-orders-the-wind-up-of-tiktok-technology-canada-inc-following-a-national-security-review-under-the-investment-canada-act.html>.
112 Investment Canada Act, RSC 1985, c 28.
113 See Daniel Otis, “Is the Chinese Government Trying to Acquire Land and Companies to Spy on Canada?” CTV News (27 October 2023), online: <www.ctvnews.ca/politics/is-the-chinese-government-trying-to-acquire-land-and-companies-to-spy-on-canada-1.6620360>.
114 Gray, supra note 88.
115 Nadine Yousif, “Canadian Police Investigate Chinese ‘Police Stations’ in Quebec,” BBC News (9 March 2023), online: <www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-64909560>.
116 Ibid.
117 See United States Department of Justice Office of Public Affairs, “Two Arrested for Operating Illegal Overseas Police Station of the Chinese Government,” press release (17 April 2023), online: <www.justice.gov/opa/pr/two-arrested-operating-illegal-overseas-police-station-chinese-government>.
118 Edgar Chen, “With New ‘Alien Land Laws’ Asian Immigrants Are Once Again Targeted by Real Estate Bans,” Just Security (26 May 2023), online: <www.justsecurity.org/86722/with-new-alien-land-laws-asian-immigrants-are-once-again-targeted-by-real-estate-bans/>.
119 Promit Mukherjee, “Canada Launches $6 Billion Housing Fund in Bid to Quell Housing Crisis,” Reuters (2 April 2024), online: <www.reuters.com/markets/canada-launches-6-bln-housing-fund-bid-quell-housing-crisis-2024-04-02/#:~:text=Canada%20faces%20a%20housing%20affordability,also%20driven%20up%20mortgage%20costs>.
120 Joanne Lee-Young, “Vancouver Is the Third Least-Affordable City in the World: Survey,” Vancouver Sun (19 April 2022), online: <vancouversun.com/news/local-news/vancouver-third-least-affordable-city-demographia>.
121 See “When Vancouver Real Estate Prices Were Falling in 1982,” CBC News (18 August 2020), online: <www.cbc.ca/archives/when-vancouver-real-estate-prices-were-falling-in-1982-1.5680987>.
122 Travis Lupick, “Revisiting Real Estate, Race, and How the Foreign-Buyers Narrative Came to Dominate Vancouver Media,” The Georgia Straight (13 July 2016), online: <www.straight.com/news/735161/revisiting-real-estate-race-and-how-foreign-buyers-narrative-came-dominate-vancouver>.
123 Ibid.
124 Kathryn Mannie, “Foreign Buyers Ban Won’t Fix Housing Market — Could Make It Worse, Experts Say,” Global News (4 January 2023), online: <globalnews.ca/news/9386999/foreign-homebuyers-ban-housing-market-canada/>.
125 Ibid.
126 Li v British Columbia, 2021 BCCA 256 at para 1 [Li].
127 Ibid.
128 Prohibition on the Purchase of Residential Property by Non-Canadians Act, SC 2022, c 10, s 4(1) [Foreign Property Ban].
129 Department of Finance Canada, “Government Announces Two-Years Extension to Ban on Foreign Ownership of Canadian Housing” (4 February 2024), online: <www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/news/2024/02/government-announces-two-year-extension-to-ban-on-foreign-ownership-of-canadian-housing.html>.
130 Foreign Property Ban, supra note 128, s 2.
131 Yvette Brend, “Why Canada’s Ban on Foreign Buyers Hasn’t Made Homes More Affordable,” CBC News (26 December 2023), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/canada-foreign-buyer-ban-housing-affordability-1.7058154>.
132 See Macklin, Audrey, “Can We Ddo Wrong to Strangers?” in Dyzenhaus, David & Moran, Mayo, eds, Calling Power to Account: Law, Reparations, and the Chinese Canadian Head Tax Case (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005) 60 at 83Google Scholar.
133 See Edgar Chen, “With New ‘Alien Land Laws’ Asian Immigrants Are Once Again Targeted by Real Estate Bans,” Just Security (26 May 2023), online: <www.justsecurity.org/86722/with-new-alien-land-laws-asian-immigrants-are-once-again-targeted-by-real-estate-bans/>.
134 Li, supra note 126.
135 Ibid at para 50.
136 Charter, supra note 14, s 15(1).
137 Li, supra note 126 at para 162.
138 Ibid at para 199.
139 Joanna Chiu, “House-hunting as an Asian Immigrant in Vancouver Means Navigating Racism,” Toronto Star (3 November 2019), online: <www.thestar.com/vancouver/house-hunting-as-an-asian-immigrant-in-vancouver-means-navigating-racism/article_b67e1038-f738-5ce8-9c18-6cef8afb342a.html>.
140 Ibid.
141 Zahra Premji, “3 Years into the COVID-19 Pandemic, Anti-Asian Hate Still Prevalent in Metro Vancouver: Advocates,” CBC News (26 January 2023), online: <www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/anti-asian-hate-in-metro-vancouver-2023-1.6725671>.
142 Global Affairs Canada, 2022–23 Department Results Report, Catalogue No FR2-25E-PDF (Ottawa: Global Affairs Canada, 2023) at 13.
143 Xu, supra note 56 at para 16.
144 Erie, supra note 13 at 63.
145 Martin Regg Cohen, “Canadians Are Turning Away from China,” Toronto Star (17 February 2024), online: <www.thestar.com/opinion/star-columnists/canadians-are-turning-away-from-china/article_7ad5487e-cdd5-11ee-8932-dbdbd1db39b2.html>.