Hostname: page-component-669899f699-7xsfk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-27T12:34:21.999Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reconsidering the link between past material culture and cognition in light of contemporary hunter–gatherer material use

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 March 2024

Duncan N. E. Stibbard-Hawkes Open the ORCID record for Duncan N. E. Stibbard-Hawkes [Opens in a new window]
Duncan N. E. Stibbard-Hawkes*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK [email protected]
*
Corresponding author: Duncan N. E. Stibbard-Hawkes; Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Many have interpreted symbolic material culture in the deep past as evidencing the origins sophisticated, modern cognition. Scholars from across the behavioural and cognitive sciences, including linguists, psychologists, philosophers, neuroscientists, primatologists, archaeologists, and palaeoanthropologists have used such artefacts to assess the capacities of extinct human species, and to set benchmarks, milestones, or otherwise chart the course of human cognitive evolution. To better calibrate our expectations, the present paper instead explores the material culture of three contemporary African forager groups. Results show that, although these groups are unequivocally behaviourally modern, they would leave scant long-lasting evidence of symbolic behaviour. Artefact sets are typically small, perhaps as a consequence of residential mobility. When traded materials are excluded, few artefacts have components with moderate–to–strong taphonomic signatures. The present analyses show that artefact function influences preservation probability, such that utilitarian tools for the processing of materials and the preparation of food are disproportionately likely to contain archaeologically traceable components. There are substantial differences in material use among populations, which create important population-level variation in preservation probability, independent of cognitive differences. I discuss the factors – cultural, ecological, and practical – that influence material choice. In so doing, I highlight the difficulties of using past material culture as an evolutionary or cognitive yardstick.

Keywords

hunter–gatherer material cultureforager toolkitscognitive revolutionbehavioural modernitysymbolic behaviourbehavioural variabilitytechnological complexity
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 48 , 2025 , e1
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Kurzgesagt (2016). What happened before history? Human origins. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGiQaabX3_oGoogle Scholar
Albessard-Ball, L., & Balzeau, A. (2018). Of tongues and men: A review of morphological evidence for the evolution of language. Journal of Language Evolution, 3(1), 79–89.Google Scholar
Allen, J., & O'Connell, J. F. (2008). Getting from Sunda to Sahul. In Clark, G., Leach, F., & O'Connor, S. (Eds.), Islands of inquiry: Colonisation, seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes (pp. 31–46). Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Allsen, T. T. (2002). The circulation of military technology in the Mongolian empire. In Di Cosmo, N. (Ed.), Warfare in inner Asian history (500–1800) (pp. 265–293). Brill.Google Scholar
Ambrose, S. H. (2010). Coevolution of composite-tool technology, constructive memory, and language: Implications for the evolution of modern human behavior. Current Anthropology, 51(Suppl. 1), 135–147.Google Scholar
Ames, C., Riel-Salvatore, J., & Collins, B. (2013). Why we need an alternative approach to the study of modern human behaviour. Canadian Journal of Archaeology, 37(1), 21–47.Google Scholar
Aronoff, M. (2020). Origins of language. In Aronoff, M. & Rees-Miller, J. (Eds.), The handbook of linguistics (pp. 3–21). Wiley.Google Scholar
Aubert, M., Lebe, R., Oktaviana, A. A., Tang, M., Burhan, B., Hamrullah, , … Brumm, A. (2019). Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art. Nature, 576(7787), 442–445.Google Scholar
Bagshawe, F. (1925). The peoples of the happy valley (East Africa) the aboriginal races of Kondoa Irangi. Part II: The Kangeju. Journal of the Royal African Society, 24, 117–139.Google Scholar
Balme, J., Davidson, I., McDonald, J., Stern, N., & Veth, P. (2009). Symbolic behaviour and the peopling of the southern arc route to Australia. Quaternary International, 202(1–2), 59–68.Google Scholar
Baquedano, E., Arsuaga, J. L., Pérez-González, A., Laplana, C., Márquez, B., Huguet, R., … Higham, T. (2023). A symbolic Neanderthal accumulation of large herbivore crania. Nature Human Behaviour, 7(3), 342–352.Google Scholar
Barham, L. (2002). Backed tools in Middle Pleistocene central Africa and their evolutionary significance. Journal of Human Evolution, 43(5), 585–603.Google Scholar
Barham, L. (2013). From hand to handle: The first industrial revolution. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Barham, L. (2016). Comment on early evidence for brilliant ritualized display: Specularite use in the Northern Cape (South Africa) between ~500 and ~300 Ka. Current Anthropology, 57(3), 301–302.Google Scholar
Barham, L., Duller, G. A. T., Candy, I., Scott, C., Cartwright, C. R., Peterson, J. R., … Nkombwe, P. (2023). Evidence for the earliest structural use of wood at least 476,000 years ago. Nature, 622(7981), 107–111.Google Scholar
Barham, L., & Everett, D. (2021). Semiotics and the origin of language in the Lower Palaeolithic. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 28(2), 535–579.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (2020). The pattern seekers: A new theory of human invention. Penguin UK.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. (2002). The Upper Paleolithic revolution. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31, 363–393.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. E., Vandermeersch, B., & Bar-Yosef, O. (2009). Shells and ochre in Middle Paleolithic Qafzeh Cave, Israel: Indications for modern behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 56(3), 307–314.Google Scholar
Behrensmeyer, A. K., Denys, C., & Brugal, J. P. (2018). What is taphonomy and what is not? Historical Biology, 30(6), 718–719.Google Scholar
Berwick, R. C., Friederici, A. D., Chomsky, N., & Bolhuis, J. J. (2013). Evolution, brain, and the nature of language. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(2), 98.Google Scholar
Blinkhorn, J. (2019). Examining the origins of hafting in South Asia. Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, 2(4), 466–481.Google Scholar
Blinkhorn, J., Timbrell, L., Grove, M., & Scerri, E. M. L. (2022). Evaluating refugia in recent human evolution in Africa. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 377(1849), 20200485.Google Scholar
Blurton Jones, N. G. (2016). Demography and evolutionary ecology of Hadza hunter–gatherers. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bolhuis, J. J., Tattersall, I., Chomsky, N., & Berwick, R. C. (2014). How could language have evolved? PLoS Biology, 12(8), 1–6.Google Scholar
Botha, R. (2008). Prehistoric shell beads as a window on language evolution. Language & Communication, 28(3), 197–212.Google Scholar
Botha, R. (2010). On the soundness of inferring modern language from symbolic behaviour. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 20(3), 345–356.Google Scholar
Breyl, M. (2021). Triangulating Neanderthal cognition: A tale of not seeing the forest for the trees. WIREs Cognitive Science, 12(2), e1545.Google Scholar
Brooks, A. S., Yellen, J. E., Potts, R., Behrensmeyer, A. K., Deino, A. L., Leslie, D. E., … Clark, J. B. (2018). Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age. Science, 360(6384), 90–94.Google Scholar
Brumm, A. (2010). The Movius Line and the bamboo hypothesis: Early hominin stone technology in Southeast Asia. Lithic Technology, 35(1), 7–24.Google Scholar
Brumm, A., & Moore, M. W. (2005). Symbolic revolutions and the Australian archaeological record. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 15(2), 157–175.Google Scholar
Brumm, A., Oktaviana, A. A., Burhan, B., Hakim, B., Lebe, R., Zhao, J. X., … Aubert, M. (2021). Oldest cave art found in Sulawesi. Science Advances, 7(3), 1–13.Google Scholar
Bundo, D. (2001). Social relationship embodied in singing and performances among the Baka. African Study Monographs, 26(26), 85–101.Google Scholar
Cashdan, E. (1984). G//ana territorial organization. Human Ecology, 12(4), 443–463.Google Scholar
Clark, A. (2001). Natural-born cyborgs? In Beynon, M., Nehaniv, C. L., & Dautenhahn, K. (Eds.), Cognitive technology: Instruments of mind, lecture notes in computer science (pp. 17–24). Springer.Google Scholar
Collard, M., Buchanan, B., Morin, J., & Costopoulos, A. (2011). What drives the evolution of hunter–gatherer subsistence technology? A reanalysis of the risk hypothesis with data from the Pacific Northwest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1129–1138.Google Scholar
Collard, M., Kemery, M., & Banks, S. (2005). Causes of toolkit variation among hunter–gatherers: A test of four competing hypotheses. Canadian Journal of Archaeology, 29, 1–19.Google Scholar
Conard, N. J. (2009). A female figurine from the basal Aurignacian of Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern Germany. Nature, 459(7244), 248–252.Google Scholar
Conard, N. J. (2010). Cultural modernity: Consensus or conundrum? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(17), 7621–7622.Google Scholar
Conard, N. J. (2015). Cultural evolution during the Middle and Late Pleistocene in Africa and Eurasia. In Henke, W. & Tattersall, I. (Eds.), Handbook of paleoanthropology (pp. 2465–2508). Springer.Google Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., Haidle, M. N., Lombard, M., & Wynn, T. (2016). Bridging theory and bow hunting: Human cognitive evolution and archaeology. Antiquity, 90(349), 219–228.Google Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., Overmann, K. A., & Wynn, T. (2022). On the problem of the interpretation of symbols and symbolism in archaeology. In Wynn, T., Overmann, K. A., & Coolidge, F. L. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of cognitive archaeology (pp. 299–315). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., Wynn, T., & Overmann, K. A. (2012). The evolution of working memory. In Alloway, T. & Alloway, R. (Eds.), Working memory: The connected intelligence (pp. 37–60). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Dart, R. A. (1974). The waterworn australopithecine pebble of many faces from Makapansgat. South African Journal of Science, 70(June), 167–169.Google Scholar
David, B., Geneste, J.-M., Petchey, F., Delannoy, J.-J., Barker, B., & Eccleston, M. (2013). How old are Australia's pictographs? A review of rock art dating. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(1), 3–10.Google Scholar
Davidson, I. (2010). The colonization of Australia and its adjacent islands and the evolution of modern cognition. Current Anthropology, 51(Suppl. 1), 177–189.Google Scholar
Davidson, I., & Noble, W. (1992). Why the first colonisation of the Australia region is the earliest evidence of modern human behaviour. Archaeology in Oceania, 27, 135–142.Google Scholar
Dean, L. G., Vale, G. L., Laland, K. N., Flynn, E., & Kendal, R. L. (2014). Human cumulative culture: A comparative perspective. Biological Reviews, 89(2), 284–301.Google Scholar
d'Errico, F. (2003). The invisible frontier. A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 12(4), 188–202.Google Scholar
d'Errico, F., & Backwell, L. (2016). Earliest evidence of personal ornaments associated with burial: The Conus shells from Border Cave. Journal of Human Evolution, 93, 91–108.Google Scholar
d'Errico, F., Backwell, L., Villa, P., Degano, I., Lucejko, J. J., Bamford, M. K., … Beaumont, P. B. (2012). Early evidence of San material culture represented by organic artifacts from Border Cave, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(33), 13214–13219.Google Scholar
d'Errico, F., Henshilwood, C., Lawson, G., Vanhaeren, M., Tillier, A.-M., Soressi, M., … Julien, M. (2003). Archaeological evidence for the emergence of language, symbolism, and music – An alternative multidisciplinary perspective. Journal of World Prehistory, 17(1), 1–70.Google Scholar
d'Errico, F., & Henshilwood, C. S. (2011). The origin of symbolically mediated behaviour. In Henshilwood, C. S. & d'Errico, F. (Eds.), Homo symbolicus: The dawn of language, imagination and spirituality (pp. 49–74). John Benjamins.Google Scholar
d'Errico, F., Pitarch Martí, A., Shipton, C., Le Vraux, E., Ndiema, E., Goldstein, S., … Boivin, N. (2020). Trajectories of cultural innovation from the Middle to Later Stone Age in Eastern Africa: Personal ornaments, bone artifacts, and ocher from Panga ya Saidi, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 141, 102737.Google Scholar
d'Errico, F., & Stringer, C. B. (2011). Evolution, revolution or saltation scenario for the emergence of modern cultures? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1060–1069.Google Scholar
Dibble, H. L., Holdaway, S. J., Lin, S. C., Braun, D. R., Douglass, M. J., Iovita, R., … Sandgathe, D. (2017). Major fallacies surrounding stone artifacts and assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 24(3), 813–851.Google Scholar
Dubois, E. (1908). Das geologische Alter der Kendengoder Trinilfauna. Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Series 2, 25(6), 1235–1270.Google Scholar
Elkins, C. (2022). Legacy of violence: A history of the British Empire. Knopf Doubleday.Google Scholar
Finlayson, C., Brown, K., Blasco, R., Rosell, J., Negro, J. J., Bortolotti, G. R., … Rodríguez Llanes, J. M. (2012). Birds of a feather: Neanderthal exploitation of raptors and corvids. PLoS ONE, 7(9), e45927.Google Scholar
Foley, R. A. (2016). Mosaic evolution and the pattern of transitions in the hominin lineage. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371(20150244), 1–14.Google Scholar
Gilligan, I. (2007). Neanderthal extinction and modern human behaviour: The role of climate change and clothing. World Archaeology, 39(4), 499–514.Google Scholar
Gilpin, W., Feldman, M. W., & Aoki, K. (2016). An ecocultural model predicts Neanderthal extinction through competition with modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(8), 2134–2139.Google Scholar
González-Ruibal, A., Hernando, A., & Politis, G. (2011). Ontology of the self and material culture: Arrow-making among the Awá hunter–gatherers (Brazil). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 30(1), 1–16.Google Scholar
Graeber, D., & Wengrow, D. (2021). The dawn of everything: A new history of humanity. Penguin UK.Google Scholar
Granger, D. E., Gibbon, R. J., Kuman, K., Clarke, R. J., Bruxelles, L., & Caffee, M. W. (2015). New cosmogenic burial ages for Sterkfontein Member 2 Australopithecus and Member 5 Oldowan. Nature, 522(7554), 85–88.Google Scholar
Granito, C., Tehrani, J., Kendal, J., & Scott-Phillips, T. (2019). Style of pictorial representation is shaped by intergroup contact. Evolutionary Human Sciences, 1, 1–14.Google Scholar
Gray, R. D., & Watts, J. (2017). Cultural macroevolution matters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(30), 7846–7852.Google Scholar
Greene, K. (1990). Perspectives on Roman technology. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 9(2), 209–219.Google Scholar
Habgood, P. J., & Franklin, N. R. (2008). The revolution that didn't arrive: A review of Pleistocene Sahul. Journal of Human Evolution, 55(2), 187–222.Google Scholar
Hahn, J. (1986). Kraft und Aggression: Die Botschaft der Eiszeitkunst im Aurignacien Süddeutschlands? (vol. 7). Archaeologica Venatoria.Google Scholar
Haidle, M. N. (2010). Working-memory capacity and the evolution of modern cognitive potential: Implications from animal and early human tool use. Current Anthropology, 51(Suppl. 1), 149–166.Google Scholar
Haidle, M. N. (2016). Lessons from Tasmania – Cultural performance versus cultural capacity. In Haidle, M. N., Conard, N. J., & Bolus, M. (Eds.), The nature of culture: Based on an interdisciplinary symposium “the nature of culture”, Tübingen, Germany (pp. 7–17). Springer Netherlands.Google Scholar
Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind. Random House.Google Scholar
Harari, Y. N., Vandermuelen, D., & Casanave, D. (2020). Sapiens: A graphic history: The birth of humankind (vol. 1). Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Hardy, B. L., Moncel, M.-H., Kerfant, C., Lebon, M., Bellot-Gurlet, L., & Mélard, N. (2020). Direct evidence of Neanderthal fibre technology and its cognitive and behavioral implications. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 4889.Google Scholar
Harmand, S., Lewis, J. E., Feibel, C. S., Lepre, C. J., Prat, S., Lenoble, A., … Roche, H. (2015). 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya. Nature, 521(7552), 310–315.Google Scholar
Hart, J. A. (1978). From subsistence to market: A case study of the Mbuti net hunters. Human Ecology, 6(3), 325–353.Google Scholar
Hennessey, J. L. (2020). A colonial trans-Pacific partnership: William Smith Clark, David Pearce Penhallow and Japanese settler colonialism in Hokkaido. Settler Colonial Studies, 10(1), 54–73.Google Scholar
Henrich, J. (2004). Demography and cultural evolution: How adaptive cultural processes can produce maladaptive losses: The Tasmanian case. American Antiquity, 69(2), 197–214.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Derex, M., Kline, M. A., Mesoudi, A., Muthukrishna, M., … Thomas, M. G. (2016). Understanding cumulative cultural evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(44), E6724–E6725. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610005113Google Scholar
Henshilwood, C. S., & Dubreuil, B. (2009). Reading the artifacts: Gleaning language skills from the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa. In Knight, C. & Botha, R. (Eds.), The cradle of language (pp. 41–61). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Henshilwood, C. S., & Dubreuil, B. (2011). The Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, 77–59 ka: Symbolic material culture and the evolution of the mind during the African Middle Stone Age. Current Anthropology, 52(3), 361–400.Google Scholar
Henshilwood, C. S., & Marean, C. W. (2003). The origin of modern human behavior. Current Anthropology, 44(5), 628–651.Google Scholar
Hiscock, P. (2007). Archaeology of ancient Australia. Routledge.Google Scholar
Hitchcock, R. K. (2012). Ostrich eggshell jewelry manufacturing and use of ostrich products among San and Bakgalagadi in the Kalahari. Botswana Notes and Records, 44, 93–105.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, D. L., Standish, C. D., García-Diez, M., Pettitt, P. B., Milton, J. A., & Zilhao, J. (2020). Response to White et al.'s reply: “Still no archaeological evidence that Neanderthals created Iberian cave art” [J. Hum. Evol. (2020) 102640]. Journal of Human Evolution, 144, 1–4.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, D. L., Standish, C. D., García-Diez, M., Pettitt, P. B., Milton, J. A., Zilhão, J., … Pike, A. W. G. (2018). U–Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neanderthal origin of Iberian cave art. Science, 359(6378), 912–915.Google Scholar
Holden, C. J. (2002). Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub-Saharan Africa: A maximum-parsimony analysis. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 269(1493), 793–799.Google Scholar
Hopkinson, T. (2011). The transmission of technological skills in the Palaeolithic: Insights from metapopulation ecology. In Roberts, B. W. & Vander Linden, M. (Eds.), Investigating archaeological cultures: Material culture, variability and tramsmission (pp. 230–244). Springer.Google Scholar
Horan, R. D., Bulte, E., & Shogren, J. F. (2005). How trade saved humanity from biological exclusion: An economic theory of Neanderthal extinction. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 58(1), 1–29.Google Scholar
Ichikawa, M. (1998). The birds as indicators of the invisible world: Ethno-ornithology of the Mbuti hunter–gatherers. African Study Monographs, 25, 105–121.Google Scholar
Jacques, T. C. (1997). From savages and barbarians to primitives: Africa, social typologies, and history in eighteenth-century French philosophy. History and Theory, 36(2), 190–215.Google Scholar
Jeffery, J. L., & Lahr, M. M. (2020). Exploring fisher–forager complexity in an African context. In Moreau, L. (Ed.), Social inequality before farming? Multidisciplinary approaches to the study of social organization in prehistoric and ethnograpic hunter–gatherer–fisher societies. McDonald Institute Conversations (pp. 255–278). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Joordens, J. C., D'Errico, F., Wesselingh, F. P., Munro, S., De Vos, J., Wallinga, J., … Roebroeks, W. (2015). Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving. Nature, 518(7538), 228–231.Google Scholar
Karkanas, P. (2021). All about wood ash: Long term fire experiments reveal unknown aspects of the formation and preservation of ash with critical implications on the emergence and use of fire in the past. Journal of Archaeological Science, 135, 105476.Google Scholar
Kelly, R. L. (2013). The lifeways of hunter–gatherers: The foraging spectrum. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kelly, R. L., Mackie, M. E., & Kandel, A. W. (2023). Rapid increase in production of symbolic artifacts after 45,000 years ago is not a consequence of taphonomic bias. Journal of Archaeological Science, 160, 105885.Google Scholar
Kenrick, J. (1996). Mbuti hunter–gatherers and rainforest conservation in the Ituri. PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Killin, A., & Pain, R. (2023). How WEIRD is cognitive archaeology? Engaging with the challenge of cultural variation and sample diversity. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 14(2), 539–563.Google Scholar
Kinzey, W. G. (1987). Evolution of human behavior: Primate models. SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Kipling, R. (1899). The white man's burden. The Times.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G. (2002). The dawn of human culture. Wiley.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G. (2008). Out of Africa and the evolution of human behavior. Evolutionary Anthropology, 17(6), 267–281.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G. (2017). Language and human evolution. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 43, 204–221.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G. (2019). Population structure and the evolution of Homo sapiens in Africa. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 28(4), 179–188.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G., & Steele, T. E. (2013). Archaeological shellfish size and later human evolution in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(27), 10910–10915. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1304750110Google Scholar
Kline, M. A., & Boyd, R. (2010). Population size predicts technological complexity in Oceania. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1693), 2559–2564.Google Scholar
Knight, C. (2010). The origins of symbolic culture. In Frey, U. J., Störmer, C., & Willführ, K. P. (Eds.), Homo novus – A human without illusions (pp. 193–211). Springer.Google Scholar
Kohl-Larsen, L. (1956). Das Elefantenspiel: Mythen, Riesen-und Stammessagen; Volkserzählungen der Tindiga. Erich Röth-Verlag.Google Scholar
Kozowyk, P. R., Soressi, M., Pomstra, D., & Langejans, G. H. (2017). Experimental methods for the Palaeolithic dry distillation of birch bark: Implications for the origin and development of Neandertal adhesive technology. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1–9.Google Scholar
Kuhn, S. L., & Stiner, M. C. (2007). Paleolithic ornaments: Implications for cognition, demography and identity. Diogenes, 54(2), 40–48.Google Scholar
Kumar, S., Filipski, A., Swarna, V., Walker, A., & Hedges, S. B. (2005). Placing confidence limits on the molecular age of the human–chimpanzee divergence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(52), 18842–18847.Google Scholar
Langley, M. C., Clarkson, C., & Ulm, S. (2008). Behavioural complexity in Eurasian Neanderthal populations: A chronological examination of the archaeological evidence. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 18(3), 289–307.Google Scholar
Langley, M. C., Clarkson, C., & Ulm, S. (2011). From small holes to grand narratives: The impact of taphonomy and sample size on the modernity debate in Australia and New Guinea. Journal of Human Evolution, 61(2), 197–208.Google Scholar
Langley, M. C., Clarkson, C., & Ulm, S. (2019). Symbolic expression in Pleistocene Sahul, Sunda, and Wallacea. Quaternary Science Reviews, 221, 1–22.Google Scholar
Larson, G., Albarella, U., Dobney, K., Rowley-Conwy, P., Schibler, J., Tresset, A., … Cooper, A. (2007). Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(39), 15276–15281.Google Scholar
Lavi, N., Rudge, A., & Warren, G. (2024). Rewild your inner hunter–gatherer: How an idea about our ancestral condition is recruited into popular debate in Britain and Ireland. Current Anthropology, 65(1), 72–99.Google Scholar
Layton, R. (2001). Hunter–gatherers, their neighbours and the nation state. In Panter-Brick, C., Rowley-Conwy, P., & Layton, R. (Eds.), Hunter–gatherers: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 292–321). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leder, D., Hermann, R., Hüls, M., Russo, G., Hoelzmann, P., Nielbock, R., … Terberger, T. (2021). A 51,000-year-old engraved bone reveals Neanderthals’ capacity for symbolic behaviour. Nature Ecology and Evolution, 5(9), 1273–1282.Google Scholar
Lee, R. B., & Daly, R. H. (1999). The Cambridge encyclopedia of hunters and gatherers. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leiner, B. M., Cerf, V. G., Clark, D. D., Kahn, R. E., Kleinrock, L., Lynch, D. C., … Wolff, S. (2009). A brief history of the Internet. ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, 39(5), 22–31.Google Scholar
Lemorini, C., Plummer, T. W., Braun, D. R., Crittenden, A. N., Ditchfield, P. W., Bishop, L. C., … Potts, R. (2014). Old stones’ song: Use-wear experiments and analysis of the Oldowan quartz and quartzite assemblage from Kanjera South (Kenya). Journal of Human Evolution, 72, 10–25.Google Scholar
Leppard, T. P. (2015). The evolution of modern behaviour and its implications for maritime dispersal during the Palaeolithic. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 25(4), 829–846.Google Scholar
Lew-Levy, S., Andersen, M. M., Lavi, N., & Riede, F. (2022). Hunter–gatherer children's object play and tool use: An ethnohistorical analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 824983.Google Scholar
Lombard, M. (2016). Mountaineering or ratcheting? Stone Age hunting weapons as proxy for the evolution of human technological, behavioral and cognitive flexibility. In Haidle, M. N., Conard, N. J., & Bolus, M. (Eds.), The nature of culture: Based on an interdisciplinary symposium “the nature of culture”, Tübingen, Germany, vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology (pp. 135–146). Springer Netherlands.Google Scholar
Lombard, M., & Haidle, M. N. (2012). Thinking a bow-and-arrow set: Cognitive implications of Middle Stone Age bow and stone-tipped arrow technology. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 22(2), 237–264.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, C. O. (2009). Reexamining human origins in light of Ardipithecus ramidus. Science, 326(5949), 74e1–74e8.Google Scholar
Mabulla, A. Z. P. (2005). The rock art of Mara region, Tanzania. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 40(1), 37–41.Google Scholar
Marean, C. W. (2010). Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, South Africa) in context: The Cape Floral Kingdom, shellfish, and modern human origins. Journal of Human Evolution, 59(3–4), 425–443.Google Scholar
Marlowe, F. W. (2010). The Hadza: Hunter–gatherers of Tanzania. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Marlowe, F. W., Apicella, C., & Reed, D. (2005). Men's preferences for women's profile waist-to-hip ratio in two societies. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(6), 458–468.Google Scholar
Marshall, L. (1976). The !Kung of Nyae Nyae (reprint 2014 edition). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mayer, D. E. Y., Groman-Yaroslavski, I., Bar-Yosef, O., Hershkovitz, I., Kampen-Hasday, A., Vandermeersch, B., … Weinstein-Evro, M. (2020). On holes and strings: Earliest displays of human adornment in the Middle Palaeolithic. PLoS ONE, 15(7), 1–13.Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J., & Szathmáry, E. (1997). The major transitions in evolution. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S. (2013). Advances in the study of the origin of humanness. Journal of Anthropological Research, 69(1), 7–31.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S., & Brooks, A. S. (2000). The revolution that wasn't: A new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 39(5), 453–563.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S., & Stringer, C. (2007). The coast in colour. Nature, 449(7164), 793–794.Google Scholar
McDowell, W. (1984). A brief history of the Mangola Hadza. Technical report, Mbulu District Development Directorate, Mbulu District, Arusha Region.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. (1987). Tools to get food: The subsistants of Tasmanian aborigines and Tanzanian chimpanzees compared. Journal of Anthropological Research, 43(3), 247–258.Google Scholar
McGrew, W. C. (2010). In search of the last common ancestor: New findings on wild chimpanzees. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1556), 3267–3276.Google Scholar
Mellars, P. (2005). The impossible coincidence. A single-species model for the origins of modern human behavior in Europe. Evolutionary Anthropology, 14(1), 12–27.Google Scholar
Mellars, P. (2006). Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? A new model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(25), 9381–9386.Google Scholar
Mellars, P. (2010). Neanderthal symbolism and ornament manufacture: The bursting of a bubble? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(47), 20147–20148.Google Scholar
Meneganzin, A., & Currie, A. (2022). Behavioural modernity, investigative disintegration & Rubicon expectation. Synthese, 200(1), 47.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, T. (2023). Earliest evidence of wooden construction uncovered. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earliest-evidence-of-wooden-construction-uncovered/Google Scholar
Milks, A. (2020). A review of ethnographic use of wooden spears and implications for Pleistocene hominin hunting. Open Quaternary, 6(1), 1–20.Google Scholar
Miller, J. M., Sawchuk, E. A., Reedman, A. L., & Willoughby, P. R. (2018). Land snail shell beads in the sub-Saharan archaeological record: When, where, and Why?. African Archaeological Review 35, 347–378.Google Scholar
Mithen, S. (2013). The cathedral model for the evolution of human cognition. In Hatfield, G. & Pittman, H. (Eds.), Evolution of mind, brain, and culture (pp. 217–234). University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Mithen, S. (2014). The cognition of Homo neanderthalensis and H. sapiens: Does the use of pigment necessarily imply symbolic thought?. In Akazawa, T., Ogihara, N., Tanabe, H. C., & Terashima, H. (Eds.), Dynamics of learning in Neanderthals and modern humans (vol. 2, pp. 7–16). Springer.Google Scholar
Mounier, A., Noûs, C., & Balzeau, A. (2020). Palaeoneurology and the emergence of language. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, 32(3–4), 147–157.Google Scholar
Mukherjee, S. (2016). The gene: An intimate history. Scribner.Google Scholar
Muller, A., Clarkson, C., & Shipton, C. (2017). Measuring behavioural and cognitive complexity in lithic technology throughout human evolution. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 48, 166–180.Google Scholar
Murray, J. K., Harris, J. A., Oestmo, S., Martin, M., & Marean, C. W. (2020). A new approach to identify heat treated silcrete near Pinnacle Point, South Africa using 3D microscopy and Bayesian modeling. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 34(PA), 102622.Google Scholar
Ndagala, D. K. (1985). Attempts to develop the Hadzabe of Tanzania. Nomadic Peoples, 18(18), 17–26.Google Scholar
Nowell, A. (2013). Cognition, behavioral modernity, and the archaeological record of the Middle and Early Upper Paleolithic. In G., Hatfield & Pittman, H. (Eds.), Evolution of mind, brain, and culture (pp. 235–262). University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Nowell, A., & White, M. (2010). Growing up in the Middle Pleistocene. In Nowell, A. & Davidson, I. (Eds.), Stone tools and the evolution of human cognition (pp. 67–82). University Press of Colorado.Google Scholar
Nurse, G. (1972). Musical instrumentation among the San (Bushmen) of the Central Kalahari. African Music: Journal of the African Music Society, 5(2), 23–27.Google Scholar
O'Connell, J. F. (1995). Ethnoarchaeology needs a general theory of behavior. Journal of Archaeological Research, 3(3), 205–255.Google Scholar
O'Connell, J. F., Allen, J., Williams, M. A., Williams, A. N., Turney, C. S., Spooner, N. A., … Cooper, A. (2018). When did Homo sapiens first reach Southeast Asia and Sahul? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(34), 8482–8490.Google Scholar
O'Connell, J. F., Hawkes, K., & Jones, N. B. (1991). Distribution of refuse-producing activities at Hadza residential base camps. In Price, T. D. (Ed.), The interpretation of archaeological spatial patterning (pp. 61–76). Springer.Google Scholar
O'Connor, S., Solazzo, C., & Collins, M. (2015). Advances in identifying archaeological traces of horn and other keratinous hard tissues. Studies in Conservation, 60(6), 393–417.Google Scholar
O'Driscoll, C. A., & Thompson, J. C. (2018). The origins and early elaboration of projectile technology. Evolutionary Anthropology, 27(1), 30–45.Google Scholar
Olusoga, D. (2016). Black and British: A forgotten history. Pan Macmillan.Google Scholar
Osaki, M. (2001). Reconstructing the recent history of the G/ui and G//ana bushmen. African Study Monographs, 26, 27–39.Google Scholar
Oswalt, W. H. (1976). An anthropological analysis of food-getting technology. Wiley.Google Scholar
Overmann, E. B. K. A., & Coolidge, F. L. (Eds.). (2019). Squeezing minds from stones: Cognitive archaeology and the evolution of the human mind. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Padilla-Iglesias, C., Blanco-Portillo, J., Ioannidis, A., Manica, A., Vinicius, L., & Migliano, A. (2022). Cultural evolution of Central African hunter–gatherers reflects a deep history of interconnectivity. Preprint. https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-2666234/v1Google Scholar
Pascual-Garrido, A., & Almeida-Warren, K. (2021). Archaeology of the perishable ecological constraints and cultural variants in chimpanzee termite fishing. Current Anthropology, 62(3), 251–388.Google Scholar
Pettitt, P. (2018). Hominin evolutionary thanatology from the mortuary to funerary realm: The palaeoanthropological bridge between chemistry and culture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1754), 20180212.Google Scholar
Pollom, T. R., Cross, C. L., Herlosky, K. N., Ford, E., & Crittenden, A. N. (2021). Effects of a mixed-subsistence diet on the growth of Hadza children. American Journal of Human Biology, 33(1), 1–5.Google Scholar
Pomeroy, E., Bennett, P., Hunt, C. O., Reynolds, T., Farr, L., Frouin, M., … Barker, G. (2020). New Neanderthal remains associated with the “flower burial” at Shanidar Cave. Antiquity, 94(373), 11–26.Google Scholar
Porr, M. (2011). One step forward, two steps back: The issue of “behavioural modernity” again. Current Anthropology, 52(4), 581–582.Google Scholar
Powell, A., Shennan, S., & Thomas, M. G. (2009). Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behavior. Science, 324(5932), 1298–1301.Google Scholar
Püschel, H. P., Bertrand, O. C., O'Reilly, J. E., Bobe, R., & Püschel, T. A. (2021). Divergence-time estimates for hominins provide insight into encephalization and body mass trends in human evolution. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 5(6), 808–819.Google Scholar
Richerson, P. J., Boyd, R., & Henrich, J. (2010). Gene–culture coevolution in the age of genomics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(Suppl. 2), 8985–8992.Google Scholar
Riede, F., Lew-Levy, S., Johannsen, N. N., Lavi, N., & Andersen, M. M. (2023). Toys as teachers: A cross-cultural analysis of object use and enskillment in hunter–gatherer societies. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 30(1), 32–63.Google Scholar
Roach, N. T., & Richmond, B. G. (2015). Clavicle length, throwing performance and the reconstruction of the Homo erectus shoulder. Journal of Human Evolution, 80, 107–113.Google Scholar
Roberts, M. B. (1998). Boxgrove: Palaeolithic hunters by the seashore. Archaeology International, 1, 8–13.Google Scholar
Roebroeks, W., Sier, M. J., Nielsen, T. K., De Loecker, D., Parés, J. M., Arps, C. E., & Mücher, H. J. (2012). Use of red ochre by early Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(6), 1889–1894.Google Scholar
Sahle, Y., Hutchings, W. K., Braun, D. R., Sealy, J. C., Morgan, L. E., Negash, A., & Atnafu, B. (2013). Earliest stone-tipped projectiles from the Ethiopian rift date to >279,000 years ago. PLoS ONE, 8(11), 1–9.279,000+years+ago.+PLoS+ONE,+8(11),+1–9.>Google Scholar
Sample, I. (2018). Neanderthals – not modern humans – were first artists on Earth, experts claim. The Guardian.Google Scholar
Sands, B., & Güldemann, T. (2009). What click languages can and can't tell us about language origins. In Botha, R. & Knight, C. (Eds.), The cradle of language (vol. 12, pp. 204–218). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sayers, K., Raghanti, M. A., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2012). Human evolution and the chimpanzee referential doctrine. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41(1), 119–138.Google Scholar
Scerri, E. M., & Will, M. (2023). The revolution that still isn't: The origins of behavioral complexity in Homo sapiens. Journal of Human Evolution, 179, 103358.Google Scholar
Scerri, E. M. L., Roberts, P., Yoshi Maezumi, S., & Malhi, Y. (2022). Tropical forests in the deep human past. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 377(1849), 20200500.Google Scholar
Scerri, E. M. L., Thomas, M. G., Manica, A., Gunz, P., Stock, J. T., Stringer, C., … Chikhi, L. (2018). Did our species evolve in subdivided populations across Africa, and why does it matter? Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 33(8), 582–594.Google Scholar
Schmidt, P., Blessing, M., Rageot, M., Iovita, R., Pfleging, J., Nickel, K. G., … Tennie, C. (2019). Birch tar production does not prove Neanderthal behavioral complexity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(36), 17707–17711.Google Scholar
Sehasseh, E. M., Fernandez, P., Kuhn, S., Stiner, M., Mentzer, S., Colarossi, D., … Longet, B. (2021). Early Middle Stone Age personal ornaments. Science Advances, 7, 1–10.Google Scholar
Shea, J. J. (2011a). Behavioral modernity – not again: A reply to Porr. Current Anthropology, 52(4), 583–584.Google Scholar
Shea, J. J. (2011b). Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was: Behavioral variability versus “behavioral modernity” in Paleolithic archaeology. Current Anthropology, 52(1), 1–35.Google Scholar
Shea, J. J. (2017). Occasional, obligatory, and habitual stone tool use in hominin evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 26(5), 200–217.Google Scholar
Shott, M. (1986). Technological organization and settlement mobility: An ethnographic examination. Journal of Anthropological Research, 42(1), 15–51.Google Scholar
Shultz, S., Nelson, E., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (2012). Hominin cognitive evolution: Identifying patterns and processes in the fossil and archaeological record. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1599), 2130–2140.Google Scholar
Singh, M., & Glowacki, L. (2022). Human social organization during the Late Pleistocene: Beyond the nomadic-egalitarian model. Evolution and Human Behavior, 43(5), 418–431.Google Scholar
Skaanes, T. (2015). Notes on Hadza cosmology. Hunter Gatherer Research, 1(2), 247–267.Google Scholar
Smith, A. (1778). An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. W. Strahan and T. Cadell.Google Scholar
Smith, L. (1977). Hadza equipment list (Unpublished).Google Scholar
Solomon, A. (1997). The myth of ritual origins? Ethnography, mythology and interpretation of San rock art. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 52(165), 3.Google Scholar
Sommer, J. D. (1999). The Shanidar IV “flower burial”: A re-evaluation of Neanderthal burial ritual. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 9(1), 127–129.Google Scholar
Speth, J. D. (2004). News flash: Negative evidence convicts Neanderthals of gross mental incompetence. World Archaeology, 36(4), 519–526.Google Scholar
Stagnaro, M. N., Stibbard-Hawkes, D. N., & Apicella, C. L. (2022). Do religious and market-based institutions promote cooperation in Hadza hunter–gatherers? Religion, Brain and Behavior, 12(1–2), 171–189.Google Scholar
Stanford, C. B., & Allen, J. S. (1991). On strategic stroytelling: Current models of human behavioral evolution. Current Anthropology, 32(1), 58–61.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2011). From hominins to humans: How sapiens became behaviourally modern. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1566), 809–822.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2014). A Paleolithic reciprocation crisis: Symbols, signals, and norms. Biological Theory, 9(1), 65–77.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2016). Cumulative cultural evolution and the origins of language. Biological Theory, 11(3), 173–186.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2017). Artifacts, symbols, thoughts. Biological Theory, 12(4), 236–247.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2019). The archaeology of the extended mind (pp. 143–158). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2020). Innovation, life history and social networks in human evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 375(1803), 20190497.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2021a). Demography and cultural complexity. Synthese, 198(9), 8557–8580.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2021b). Foragers and their tools: Risk, technology and complexity. Topics in Cognitive Science, 13(4), 728–749.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K., & Hiscock, P. (2024). Cumulative culture, archaeology, and the zone of latent solutions. Current Anthropology, 65(1). https://doi.org/10.1086/728723Google Scholar
Stibbard-Hawkes, D. N. (2020). Egalitarianism and democratized access to lethal weaponry: A neglected approach. In Moreau, L. (Ed.), Social inequality before farming? Multidisciplinary approaches to the study of social organization in prehistoric and ethnographic hunter–gatherer–fisher societies. (McDonald Institute conversations) (pp. 83–102). McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Stibbard-Hawkes, D. N., Attenborough, R. D., Mabulla, I. A., & Marlowe, F. W. (2020). To the hunter go the spoils? No evidence of nutritional benefit to being or marrying a well-reputed Hadza hunter. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 173(1), 61–79.Google Scholar
Stibbard-Hawkes, D. N., Attenborough, R. D., & Marlowe, F. W. (2018). A noisy signal: To what extent are Hadza hunting reputations predictive of actual hunting skills? Evolution and Human Behavior, 39(6), 639–651.Google Scholar
Stibbard-Hawkes, D. N., Smith, K. M., & Apicella, C. L. (2022). Why hunt? Why gather? Why share? Hadza assessments of foraging and food-sharing motive. Evolution and Human Behavior, 43(3), 257–272.Google Scholar
Stibbard-Hawkes, D. N. E., & Apicella, C. L. (2022). Myopia rates among Hadza hunter–gatherers are low but not exceptional. American Journal of Biological Anthropology, 179(4), 655–667.Google Scholar
Stock, J. T., & Pinhasi, R. (2011). Changing paradigms in our understanding of the transition to agriculture: Human bioarchaeology, behaviour and adaptation. In Pinhasi, R. & Stock, J. T. (Eds.), Human bioarchaeology of the transition to agriculture (pp. 1–13). Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Stout, D., & Chaminade, T. (2012). Stone tools, language and the brain in human evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1585), 75–87.Google Scholar
Stout, D., Chaminade, T., Apel, J., Shafti, A., & Faisal, A. A. (2021). The measurement, evolution, and neural representation of action grammars of human behavior. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 13720.Google Scholar
Stringer, C. (2002). Modern human origins: Progress and prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 357(1420), 563–579.Google Scholar
Stringer, C. (2016). The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371(1698), 1–12.Google Scholar
Surovell, T. A., Byrd Finley, J., Smith, G. M., Brantingham, P. J., & Kelly, R. (2009). Correcting temporal frequency distributions for taphonomic bias. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36(8), 1715–1724.Google Scholar
Sutton, J. (2020). Personal memory, the scaffolded mind, and cognitive change in the Neolithic. In Hodder, I. (Ed.), Consciousness, creativity, and self at the dawn of settled life (pp. 209–229). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sykes, R. M. (2015). To see a world in a hafted tool: Birch pitch composite technology, cognition and memory in Neanderthals. In Coward, F., Hosfield, R., Pope, M., & Wenban-Smith, F. (Eds.), Settlement, society and cognition in human evolution: Landscapes in mind (pp. 117–137). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sykes, R. W. (2020). Kindred: Neanderthal life, love, death and art. Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Tanaka, J. (1979). A study of the comparative ecology of African gatherer–hunters with special reference to San (Bushman-speaking people) and pygmies. Senri Ethnological Studies, 1, 189–212.Google Scholar
Tanno, T. (1981). Plant utilization of the Mbuti pygmies, with special reference to their material culture and use of wild vegetable foods. African Study Monographs, 1, 1–53.Google Scholar
Tattersall, I. (2017a). How can we detect when language emerged? Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24(1), 64–67.Google Scholar
Tattersall, I. (2017b). The material record and the antiquity of language. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 8, 247–254.Google Scholar
Tennie, C., Braun, D. R., Premo, L. S., & McPherron, S. P. (2016). The island test for cumulative culture in the Paleolithic. In Haidle, M. N., Conard, N. J., & Bolus, M. (Eds.), The nature of culture: Based on an interdisciplinary symposium “the nature of culture”, Tübingen, Germany, vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology (pp. 121–133). Springer Netherlands.Google Scholar
Tennie, C., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Ratcheting up the ratchet: On the evolution of cumulative culture. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 364(1528), 2405–2415.Google Scholar
Tennie, C., Premo, L. S., Braun, D. R., & McPherron, S. P. (2017). Early stone tools and cultural transmission: Resetting the null hypothesis. Current Anthropology, 58(5), 652–672.Google Scholar
Terashima, H., & Ichikawa, M. (2003). A comparative ethnobotany of the Mbuti and Efe hunter–gatherers in the Ituri Forest, Democratic Republic of Congo. African Study Monographs, 24(March), 1–168.Google Scholar
Testart, A., Forbis, R. G., Hayden, B., Ingold, T., Perlman, S. M., Pokotylo, D. L., … Stuart, D. E. (1982). The significance of food storage among residence patterns, population densities, and social inequalities. Current Anthropology, 23(5), 523–537.Google Scholar
Thieme, H. (1997). Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature, 385(6619), 807–810.Google Scholar
Torrence, R. (1983). Time budgeting and hunter–gatherer technology. In Bailey, G. (Ed.), Hunter–Gatherer economy in prehistory (pp. 11–22). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tribble, E. B., & Keene, N. (2011). Introduction: Cognitive ecologies, distributed cognition, extended mind and memory studies. In Tribble, E. B. & Keene, N. (Eds.), Cognitive ecologies and the history of remembering: Religion, education and memory in early modern England (Palgrave Macmillan memory studies) (pp. 1–18). Palgrave Macmillan UK.Google Scholar
Turk, M., Turk, I., Dimkaroski, L., Blackwell, B. A., Horusitzky, F. Z., Otte, M., … Korat, L. (2018). The Mousterian musical instrument from the Divje Babe I cave (Slovenia): Arguments on the material evidence for Neanderthal musical behaviour. L'Anthropologie, 122(4), 679–706.Google Scholar
Turnbull, C. (2015). The forest people. Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Turnbull, C. M. (1976). Wayward servants: The two worlds of the African pygmies. Praeger.Google Scholar
Vaesen, K., Collard, M., Cosgrove, R., & Roebroeks, W. (2016). Population size does not explain past changes in cultural complexity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(16), E4241–E4247.Google Scholar
Vanhaeren, M., D'Errico, F., van Niekerk, K. L., Henshilwood, C. S., & Erasmus, R. M. (2013). Thinking strings: Additional evidence for personal ornament use in the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 64(6), 500–517.Google Scholar
Vanhaeren, M., Wadley, L., & d'Errico, F. (2019). Variability in Middle Stone Age symbolic traditions: The marine shell beads from Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 27(September), 101893.Google Scholar
Verpooten, J., & Nelissen, M. (2010). Sensory exploitation and cultural transmission: The late emergence of iconic representations in human evolution. Theory in Biosciences, 129(2–3), 211–221.Google Scholar
Villa, P., & Roebroeks, W. (2014). Neandertal demise: An archaeological analysis of the modern human superiority complex. PLoS ONE, 9(4), e96424.Google Scholar
Vossen, R. (2013). The Khoesan languages. Routledge.Google Scholar
Vyshedskiy, A. (2019). Language evolution to revolution: The leap from rich-vocabulary nonrecursive communication system to recursive language 70,000 years ago was associated with acquisition of a novel component of imagination, called prefrontal synthesis, enabled by a Mutati. Research Ideas and Outcomes, 5(1), 1–50.Google Scholar
Wadley, L. (2005). Putting ochre to the test: Replication studies of adhesives that may have been used for hafting tools in the Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, 49(5), 587–601.Google Scholar
Wadley, L. (2013). Recognizing complex cognition through innovative technology in Stone Age and Palaeolithic sites. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 23(2), 163–183.Google Scholar
Wadley, L. (2016). Technological transformations imply cultural transformations and complex cognition. In Haidle, M. N., Conard, N. J., & Bolus, M. (Eds.), The nature of culture: Based on an interdisciplinary symposium “the nature of culture”, Tübingen, Germany, vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology (pp. 57–63). Springer Netherlands.Google Scholar
Wadley, L. (2021). What stimulated rapid, cumulative innovation after 100,000 years ago? Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 28(1), 120–141.Google Scholar
Wadley, L., Esteban, I., De La Peña, P., Wojcieszak, M., Stratford, D., Lennox, S., … Sievers, C. (2020). Fire and grass-bedding construction 200 thousand years ago at Border Cave, South Africa. Science, 369(6505), 863–866.Google Scholar
Wadley, L., Hodgskiss, T., & Grant, M. (2009). Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(24), 9590–9594.Google Scholar
Walsh, P. T., Hansell, M., Borello, W. D., & Healy, S. D. (2013). Are elaborate bird nests built using simple rules? Avian Biology Research, 6(2), 157–162.Google Scholar
Watts, I. (2010). The pigments from Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 59(3–4), 392–411.Google Scholar
Watts, I., Chazan, M., & Wilkins, J. (2016). Early evidence for brilliant ritualized display: Specularite use in the Northern Cape (South Africa) between ~500 and ~300 Ka. Current Anthropology, 57(3), 287–310.Google Scholar
Wei, Y., d'Errico, F., Vanhaeren, M., Peng, F., Chen, F., & Gao, X. (2017). A technological and morphological study of Late Paleolithic ostrich eggshell beads from Shuidonggou, North China. Journal of Archaeological Science, 85, 83–104.Google Scholar
Wells, J. C., & Stock, J. T. (2020). Life history transitions at the origins of agriculture: A model for understanding how niche construction impacts human growth, demography and health. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 11(May), 1–29.Google Scholar
White, R., Bosinski, G., Bourrillon, R., Clottes, J., Conkey, M. W., Rodriguez, S. C., … Willis, M. D. (2020). Still no archaeological evidence that Neanderthals created Iberian cave art. Journal of Human Evolution, 144, 102640.Google Scholar
Whiten, A., McGrew, W. C., Aiello, L. C., Boesch, C., Boyd, R., Byrne, R. W., … Wrangham, R. (2010). Studying extant species to model our past. Science, 327(January), 410–412.Google Scholar
Wiessner, P. (1983). Style and social information in Kalahari San projectile points. American Antiquity, 48(2), 253–276.Google Scholar
Wiessner, P. (2009). Social and ceremonial aspects of death among the !Kung San. Botswana Notes and Records, 15, 1–5.Google Scholar
Wilkins, J., Schoville, B. J., Brown, K. S., & Chazan, M. (2012). Evidence for early hafted hunting technology. Science, 338(6109), 942–946.Google Scholar
Wilkins, J., Schoville, B. J., Pickering, R., Gliganic, L., Collins, B., Brown, K. S., … Hatton, A. (2021). Innovative Homo sapiens behaviours 105,000 years ago in a wetter Kalahari. Nature, 592(August 2020), 248–252.Google Scholar
Woodburn, J. (1970). Hunters and gatherers: The material culture of the nomadic Hadza. British Museum.Google Scholar
Woodburn, J. (1982). Social dimensions of death in four African hunting and gathering societies. In Bloch, M. & Perry, J. (Eds.), Death and the regeneration of life (pp. 187–210). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Woodburn, J. (1997). Indigenous discrimination: The ideological basis for local discrimination against hunter–gatherer minorities in sub-Saharan Africa. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20(2), 345–361.Google Scholar
Wynn, T., Coolidge, F., & Bright, M. (2009). Hohlenstein-Stadel and the evolution of human conceptual thought. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 19(1), 73–83.Google Scholar
Wynn, T., & Coolidge, F. L. (2010). Beyond symbolism and language: An introduction to supplement 1, working memory. Current Anthropology, 51(Suppl. 1), 5–16.Google Scholar
Wynn, T., Overmann, K. A., & Coolidge, F. L. (2016). The false dichotomy: A refutation of the Neandertal indistinguishability claim. Journal of Anthropological Sciences, 94, 201–221.Google Scholar
Wynn, T., Overmann, K. A., & Malafouris, L. (2021). 4E cognition in the Lower Palaeolithic. Adaptive Behavior, 29(2), 99–106.Google Scholar
Zilhão, J. (2007). The emergence of ornaments and art: An archaeological perspective on the origins of “behavioral modernity”. Journal of Archaeological Research, 15(1), 1–54.Google Scholar
Zilhão, J., Angelucci, D. E., Badal-García, E., D'Errico, F., Daniel, F., Dayet, L., … Zapata, J. (2010). Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(3), 1023–1028.Google Scholar