Hostname: page-component-669899f699-8p65j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-04T15:07:12.937Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

#No2Sectarianism: Experimental Approaches to Reducing Sectarian Hate Speech Online

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 June 2020

ALEXANDRA A. SIEGEL Open the ORCID record for ALEXANDRA A. SIEGEL [Opens in a new window]  and
VIVIENNE BADAAN Open the ORCID record for VIVIENNE BADAAN [Opens in a new window]
ALEXANDRA A. SIEGEL*
Affiliation:
University of Colorado at Boulder
VIVIENNE BADAAN*
Affiliation:
New York University
*
Alexandra A. Siegel, Assistant Professor, University of Colorado at Boulder, [email protected]
Vivienne Badaan, PhD. Candidate, Department of Psychology, New York University, [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We use an experiment across the Arab Twittersphere and a nationally representative survey experiment in Lebanon to evaluate what types of counter-speech interventions are most effective in reducing sectarian hate speech online. We explore whether and to what extent messages priming common national identity or common religious identity, with and without elite endorsements, decrease the use of hostile anti-outgroup language. We find that elite-endorsed messages that prime common religious identity are the most consistently effective in reducing the spread of sectarian hate speech. Our results provide suggestive evidence that religious elites may play an important role as social referents—alerting individuals to social norms of acceptable behavior. By randomly assigning counter-speech treatments to actual producers of online hate speech and experimentally evaluating the effectiveness of these messages on a representative sample of citizens that might be incidentally exposed to such language, this work offers insights for researchers and policymakers on avenues for combating harmful rhetoric on and offline.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 114 , Issue 3 , August 2020 , pp. 837 - 855
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Political Science Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

Our thanks to Kevin Munger, Joshua Tucker, Jonathan Nagler, Marc Lynch, Jennifer Larson, Amaney Jamal, Morten Valborn, Renard Sexton, Zachary Steinert-Threlkeld, Thomas Zeitzoff, and participants at the 2018 POMEPS Annual Conference for their helpful comments and suggestions; to NYU’s Center for Social Media and Politics for making our collaboration possible; and the National Science Foundation (Award #1647450) for research support. Replication files are available at the American Political Science Review Dataverse: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/KQJKY0.

References

Abdo, Geneive. 2013. “The New Sectarianism: The Arab Uprisings and the Rebirth of the Shia-Sunni Divide.” Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Abdo, Geneive. 2015. “Salafists and Sectarianism: Twitter and Communal Conflict in the Middle East.” Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Álvarez-Benjumea, Amalia, and Winter, Fabian. 2018. “Normative Change and Culture of Hate: An Experiment in Online Environments.” European Sociological Review 34 (3): 223–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amnesty International. 2014. “Central African Republic: Ethnic Cleansing and Sectarian Killings.” Amnesty International. Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/02/central-african-republic-ethnic-cleansing-sectarian-violence/.Google Scholar
Arun, Chinmayi, and Nayak, Nakul. 2016. “Preliminary Findings on Online Hate Speech and the Law in India.” Berkman Klein Center Research Publication No. 2016-19. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2882238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailard, Catie Snow. 2015. “Ethnic Conflict Goes Mobile: Mobile Technology’s Effect on the Opportunities and Motivations for Violent Collective Action.” Journal of Peace Research 52 (3): 323–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benesch, Susan. 2014. “Countering Dangerous Speech: New Ideas for Genocide Prevention.” Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.Google Scholar
Benmelech, Efraim, and Klor, Esteban F.. 2016. “What Explains the Flow of Foreign Fighters to ISIS?” National Bureau of Economic Research No. 22190.Google Scholar
Boatright, Robert G, Shaffer, Timothy J., Sobieraj, Sarah, and Young, Dannagal Goldthwaite. 2019. A Crisis of Civility? Political Discourse and Its Discontents . Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bora, Kukil. 2015. “ISIS Continues Steady Recruitment as 20,000 Foreign Fighters Join Extremist Groups in Syria, Iraq: Report.” International Business Times 11.Google Scholar
Brader, Ted, and Tucker, Joshua A.. 2008. “Pathways to Partisanship: Evidence from Russia.” Post-Soviet Affairs 24 (3): 263–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn B 2007. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations: Social Categorization, Ingroup Bias, and Outgroup Prejudice. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn B, and Gaertner, Samuel L.. 2001. “Toward Reduction of Prejudice: Intergroup Contact and Social Categorization.” In Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes, eds. Brown, Rupert and Gaertner, Sam. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 451–472.Google Scholar
Cairns, EdKenworthy, JaredCampbell, Andrea, and Hewstone, Miles. 2006. “The Role of In-Group Identification, Religious Group Membership and Intergroup Conflict in Moderating In-Group and Out-Group Affect.” British Journal of Social Psychology 45 (4): 701–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Wimmer, Andreas, and Min, Brian. 2010. “Why Do Ethnic Groups Rebel? New Data and Analysis.” World Politics 62 (1): 87–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandrasekharan, Eshwar, Pavalanathan, Umashanthi, Srinivasan, Anirudh, Glynn, Adam, Eisenstein, Jacob, and Gilbert, Eric. 2017. “You Can’t Stay Here: The Efficacy of Reddit’s 2015 Ban Examined through Hate Speech.” The Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 1 CSCW: 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charnysh, Volha, Lucas, Christopher, and Singh, Prerna. 2015. “The Ties That Bind: National Identity Salience and Pro-Social Behavior toward the Ethnic Other.” Comparative Political Studies 48 (3): 267–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chau, Michael, and Xu, Jennifer. 2007. “Mining Communities and Their Relationships in Blogs: A Study of Online Hate Groups.” International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 65 (1): 57–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chong, Dennis, and Druckman, James N.. 2007. “Framing Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 10: 103–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, Kevin, Kenski, Kate, and Rains, Stephen A.. 2014. “Online and Uncivil? Patterns and Determinants of Incivility in Newspaper Website Comments.” Journal of Communication 64 (4): 658–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen-Almagor, Raphael. 2011. “Fighting Hate and Bigotry on the Internet.” Policy & Internet 3 (3): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colby, Anne, and Damon, William. 2010. Some Do Care. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google ScholarPubMed
Crisp, Richard J, and Hewstone, Miles. 2007. “Multiple Social Categorization.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 39: 163–254.Google Scholar
Daher, Aurélie. 2018. “Lebanon: Regional Patronage with a National Straitjacket.” In ° Politique Étrangère N (1): 169–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, Thomas, Warmsley, Dana, Macy, Michael, and Weber, Ingmar. 2017. “Automated Hate Speech Detection and the Problem of Offensive Language.” Unpublished Manuscript. Available at: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1703.04009.pdf.Google Scholar
Dovidio, John F, and Gaertner, Samuel L.. 2010. “Intergroup bias.” In Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. Susan T. Fiske, Daniel T. Gilbert, Gardner Lindzey. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1084–121.Google Scholar
Dovidio, John F, Gaertner, Samuel L., and Loux, Stephenie. 2000. “Subjective Experiences and Intergroup Relations: The Role of Positive Affect.” In The Message within: The Role of Subjective Experience in Social Cognition and Behavior, eds. Bless, Herbert and Forgas, Joseph P.. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis, 340–371.Google Scholar
Druckman, James N 2001. “The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competence.” Political Behavior 23 (3): 225–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Druckman, James N, Peterson, Erik, and Slothuus, Rune. 2013. “How Elite Partisan Polarization Affects Public Opinion Formation.” American Political Science Review 107 (1): 57–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunton, Bridget C, and Fazio, Russell H.. 1997. “An Individual Difference Measure of Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (3): 316–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyck, Joshua J., and Pearson-Merkowitz, Shanna. 2014. “To Know You Is Not Necessarily to Love You: The Partisan Mediators of Intergroup Contact.” Political Behavior 36 (3): 553–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faris, Robert, Ashar, Amar, Gasser, Urs, and Joo, Daisy. 2016. “Understanding Harmful Speech Online.” Berkman Klein Center Research Publication No. 2016-21. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2882824.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forscher, Patrick S, Cox, William T. L., Graetz, Nicholas, and Devine, Patricia G.. 2015. “The Motivation to Express Prejudice.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109 (5): 791–812.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaertner, Samuel L, Dovidio, John F., Banker, Brenda S., Houlette, Missy, Johnson, Kelly M., and McGlynn, Elizabeth A.. 2000. “Reducing Intergroup Conflict: From Superordinate Goals to Decategorization, Recategorization, and Mutual Differentiation .” Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 4 (1): 98–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaertner, Samuel L, Dovidio, John F., Guerra, Rita, Hehman, Eric, and Saguy, Tamar. 2016. “A Common Ingroup Identity: Categorization, Identity, and Intergroup Relations.” In Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, ed. Nelson, Todd D.. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge, 433–454.Google Scholar
Gagliardone, Iginio. 2014. “Mapping and Analysing Hate Speech Online.” Unpublished Manuscript. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2601792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gagliardone, Iginio, Gal, Danit, Alves, Thiago, and Martinez, Gabriela. 2015. Countering Online Hate Speech. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Publishing.Google Scholar
Gerges, Fawaz A. 2014. “ISIS and the Third Wave of Jihadism.” Current History 113 (767): 339–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gitari, Njagi Dennis, Zuping, Zhang, Damien, Hanyurwimfura, and Long, Jun. 2015a. “A Lexicon-based Approach for Hate Speech Detection.” International Journal of Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering 10 (4): 215–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harb, Charles. 2010. “Describing the Lebanese Youth: A National and Psycho-social Survey.” Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and International Affairs, Working Paper Series #3. Beirut: American University of Beirut.Google Scholar
Hardy, Sam A., and Carlo, Gustavo. 2005. “Identity as a Source of Moral Motivation.” Human Development 48 (4): 232–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, Michael A. 2015. Constructive Leadership across Groups: How Leaders Can Combat Prejudice and Conflict between Subgroups. Advances in Group Processes 32: 177–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, Michael A., and Rinella, Mark J.. 2018. “Social Identities and Shared Realities.” Current Opinion in Psychology 23: 6–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, Michael A., and Reid, Scott A.. 2006. “Social Identity, Self-Categorization, and the Communication of Group Norms.” Communication Theory 16 (1): 7–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houlette, Melissa A., Gaertner, Samuel L., Johnson, Kelly M., Banker, Brenda S., Riek, Blake M., and Dovidio, John F.. 2004. “Developing a More Inclusive Social Identity: An Elementary School Intervention.” Journal of Social Issues 60 (1): 35–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, Sally, and Jacobs, Scott. 1983. “Generalizing About Messages: Suggestions for Design and Analysis of Experiments.” Human Communication Research 9 (2): 169–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenne, Erin K. 2010. “Barriers to Reintegration after Ethnic Civil Wars: Lessons from Minority Returns and Restitution in the Balkans.” Civil Wars 12 (4): 370–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, Thomas, and Mummendey, Amélie. 2001. “Is There Any Scapegoat around? Determinants of Intergroup Conflicts at Different Categorization Levels.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (6): 1090–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kobeissi, Bilal, and Harb, Charles. 2013. “The Effect of the Lebanese Electoral Law on Sectarianism in a Student Sample at AUB.” Unpublished Manuscript. Available at: https://scholarworks.aub.edu.lb/handle/10938/9655.Google Scholar
Lazarev, Egor, and Sharma, Kunaal. 2017. “Brother or Burden: An Experiment on Reducing Prejudice toward Syrian Refugees in Turkey.” Political Science Research and Methods 5 (2): 201–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lebanese Information Center (LIC). 2013. “The Lebanese Demographic Reality.” Lebanon: LIC. Available at: http://www.lstatic.org/PDF/demographenglish.pdf.Google Scholar
Levendusky, Matthew S. 2018. “Americans, Not Partisans: Can Priming American National Identity Reduce Affective Polarization?” The Journal of Politics 80 (1): 59–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupia, Arthur. 1994. “Shortcuts versus Encyclopedias: Information and Voting Behavior in California Insurance Reform Elections.” American Political Science Review 88 (1): 63–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupia, Arthur, and McCubbins, Mathew D.. 1998. The Democratic Dilemma: Can Citizens Learn What They Need to Know? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mathew, Binny, Kumar, Navish, Goyal, Pawan, and Mukherjee, Animesh. 2018. “Analyzing the Hate and Counter Speech Accounts on Twitter.” arXiv preprint arXiv:1812.02712.Google Scholar
Matthiesen, Toby. 2015. “The Islamic State Exploits Entrenched Anti-Shia Incitement.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, July 21. Available at: http://carnegieendowment.org/sada/?fa=60799.Google Scholar
McDoom, Omar Shahabudin. 2012. “The Psychology of Threat in Intergroup Conflict: Emotions, Rationality, and Opportunity in the Rwandan Genocide.” International Security 37 (2): 119–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, Brian, Brown, Rupert, and Smith, Colleen. 1992. “Ingroup Bias as a Function of Salience, Relevance, and Status: An Integration.” European Journal of Social Psychology 22 (2): 103–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munger, Kevin. 2017a. “Experimentally Reducing Partisan Incivility on Twitter.” Unpublished working paper. Available at: https://kmunger.github.io/pdfs/jmp.pdf.Google Scholar
Munger, Kevin. 2017b. “Tweetment Effects on the Tweeted: Experimentally Reducing Racist Harassment.” Political Behavior 39 (3): 629–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasr, Vali R. 2000. “International Politics, Domestic Imperatives, and Identity Mobilization: Sectarianism in Pakistan, 1979-1998.” Comparative Politics 32 (2): 171–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noman, Helmi, Robert, Faris and John, Kelly, Openness and Restraint: Structure, Discourse, and Contention in Saudi Twitter (December 2015). Berkman Center Research Publication No. 2015–16. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2700944 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2700944CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oakes, Penelope. 2001. “The Root of All Evil in Intergroup Relations? Unearthing the Categorization Process.” Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes, eds. Brown, Rupert and Gaertner, Samuel L.. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 3–21.Google Scholar
Owen-Jones, Marc. 2018. “Mapping Sectarian Slurs in the Middle East Twittersphere.” Unpublished Manuscript. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327666040_Mapping_Sectarian_Slurs_in_the_Middle_East_Twittersphere.Google Scholar
Oz, Mustafa, Zheng, Pei, and Chen, Gina Masullo. 2017. “Twitter versus Facebook: Comparing Incivility, Impoliteness, and Deliberative Attributes.” New Media & Society 20 (9): 3400–3419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paluck, Elizabeth Levy, Shepherd, Hana, and Aronow, Peter M.. 2016. “Changing Climates of Conflict: A Social Network Experiment in 56 Schools.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113 (3): 566–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1998. “Intergroup Contact Theory.” Annual Review of Psychology 49 (1): 65–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pierskalla, Jan H., and Hollenbach, Florian M.. 2013. “Technology and Collective Action: The Effect of Cell Phone Coverage on Political Violence in Africa.” American Political Science Review 107 (2): 207–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quillian, Lincoln. 1995. “Prejudice as a Response to Perceived Group Threat: Population Composition and Anti-Immigrant and Racial Prejudice in Europe.” American Sociological Review 60 (4): 586–611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabbie, Jacob M., and Horwitz, Murray. 1969. “Arousal of Ingroup-Outgroup Bias by a Chance Win or Loss.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (3): 269–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rebelo, M., Guerra, R., and Monteiro, M. B.. 2004. Reducing Prejudice: Comparative Effects of Three Theoretical Models. Paper presented at the Fifth Biennial Convention of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Rossini, Patrícia G. C. 2018. “Does it Matter If It’s Uncivil? Conceptualizing Uncivil and Intolerant Discourse in Online Political Talk.” Unpublished Working Paper.Google Scholar
Sagherian, Thia, and Harb, Charles. 2010. “An Experimental Assessment of Prejudice Reduction Models in a Student Sample of the American University of Beirut.” Master’s thesis. American University of Beirut. Available at: https://scholarworks.aub.edu.lb/handle/10938/8591.Google Scholar
Schieb, Carla, and Preuss, Mike. 2016. “Governing Hate Speech by Means of Counterspeech on Facebook.” Paper presented at the 66th Annual Conference of the International Communication Association, Fukuoka, Japan.Google Scholar
Siegel, Alexandra A. 2015. Sectarian Twitter Wars: Sunni-Shia Conflict and Cooperation in the Digital Age. Vol. 20. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar
Siegel, Alexandra A., and Tucker, Joshua A.. 2018. “The Islamic State’s Information Warfare.” Journal of Language and Politics 17 (2): 258–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegel, Alexandra, Tucker, Joshua, Nagler, Jonathan, and Bonneau, Richard. 2017. “Socially Mediated Sectarianism.” Unpublished Manuscript. Available at: http://alexandra-siegel.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Siegel_Sectarianism_January2017.pdf.Google Scholar
Silva, Leandro, Mondal, Mainack, Correa, Denzil, Benevenuto, Fabrício, and Weber, Ingmar. 2016. “Analyzing the Targets of Hate in Online Social Media.” Unpublished Manuscript. Available at: https://arxiv.org/abs/1603.07709v1.Google Scholar
Smith, Ben. 2015. “ISIS and the Sectarian Conflict in the Middle East.” Economic Indicators 3: 1–60.Google Scholar
Stein, Elizabeth A. 2013. “The Unraveling of Support for Authoritarianism: The Dynamic Relationship of Media, Elites, and Public Opinion in Brazil, 1972–82.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 18 (1): 85–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, Natalie Jomini, Scacco, Joshua M., Muddiman, Ashley, and Curry, Alexander L.. 2014. “Changing Deliberative Norms on News Organizations’ Facebook Sites.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 20 (2): 188–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stukal, Denis, Sanovich, Sergey, Bonneau, Richard, and Tucker, Joshua A.. 2017. “Detecting Bots on Russian Political Twitter.” Big Data 5 (4): 310–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, John L., Marcus, George E., Feldman, Stanley, and Piereson, James E.. 1981. “The Sources of Political Tolerance: A Multivariate Analysis.” American Political Science Review 75 (1): 92–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, Billig, Michael G., Bundy, Robert P., and Flament, Claude. 1971. “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour.” European Journal of Social Psychology 1 (2): 149–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankard, Margaret E., and Paluck, Elizabeth Levy. 2016. “Norm Perception as a Vehicle for Social Change.” Social Issues and Policy Review 10 (1): 181–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Traboulsi, Fawwaz. 2007. A Modern History of Lebanon. Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Transue, John E. 2007. “Identity Salience, Identity Acceptance, and Racial Policy Attitudes: American National Identity as a Uniting Force.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1): 78–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuckwood, Christopher. 2014. “The State of the Field: Technology for Atrocity Response.” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal 8 (3): 81–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, John C., Hogg, Michael A., Oakes, Penelope J., Reicher, Stephen D., and Wetherell, Margaret S.. 1987. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Varshney, Ashutosh. 2003. Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Vezzali, Loris, Stathi, Sofia, Crisp, Richard J., Giovannini, Dino, Capozza, Dora, and Gaertner, Samuel L.. 2015. “Imagined Intergroup Contact and Common Ingroup Identity.” Social Psychology 46 (5): 265–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vollhardt, Johanna, Coutin, Marie, Staub, Ervin, Weiss, George, and Deflander, Johan. 2007. “Deconstructing Hate Speech in the DRC: A Psychological Media Sensitization Campaign.” Journal of Hate Studies 5 (15): 15–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, Benjamin H., Sinclair, H. Colleen, and MacArthur, John. 2015. “Social Norms versus Social Motives: The Effects of Social Influence and Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions on the Expression of Prejudice.” Social Influence 10 (1): 55–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waseem, Zeerak, and Hovy, Dirk. 2016. “Hateful Symbols or Hateful People? Predictive Features for Hate Speech Detection on Twitter.” In Proceedings of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (NAACL-HLT). San Diego, CA: NAACL-HLT, 88–93.Google Scholar
Wehrey, Frederic M. 2013. Sectarian Politics in the Gulf: from the Iraq War to the Arab Uprisings. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Weidmann, Nils B. 2009. “Geography as Motivation and Opportunity: Group Concentration and Ethnic Conflict.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 53 (4): 526–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weidmann, Nils B. 2015. “Communication Networks and the Transnational Spread of Ethnic Conflict.” Journal of Peace Research 52 (3): 285–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisel, Ori, and Böhm, Robert. 2015. “‘Ingroup Love’ and ‘Outgroup Hate’ in Intergroup Conflict between Natural Groups.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 60: 110–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Fiona A., Abu-Rayya, Hisham M., Bliuc, Ana-Maria, and Faulkner, Nicholas. 2015. “Emotion Expression and Intergroup Bias Reduction between Muslims and Christians: Long-term Internet Contact.” Computers in Human Behavior 53: 435–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zelin, Aaron Y., and Smyth, Phillip. 2014. “The Vocabulary of Sectarianism.” Foreign Policy. Available at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/29/the-vocabulary-of-sectarianism/.Google Scholar
Ziadeh, Hanna. 2006. Sectarianism and Intercommunal Nation-building in Lebanon. London: Hurst & Company.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: Link

Siegel and Badaan Dataset

Dataset https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/KQJKY0
Link
Supplementary material: PDF

Siegel and Badaan Supplementary Materials

Siegel and Badaan Supplementary Materials

Download Siegel and Badaan Supplementary Materials(PDF)
PDF 625.6 KB
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.