Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-zh294 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-09T06:57:58.482Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Gender and Literary Geography

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 April 2025

Elizabeth F. Evans
Affiliation:
Wayne State University
Matthew Wilkens
Affiliation:
Cornell University, New York

Summary

Our analysis of over 20,000 books published in Britain between 1800 and 2009 compares the geographic attention of fiction authored by women and by men; of books that focus on women and men as characters; and of works published in different eras. We find that, while there were only modest differences in geographic attention in books by men and women authors, there were dramatic geographic differences in books with highly gendered character space. Counter to expectation, the geographic differences between differently gendered characters were remarkably stable across these centuries. We also examine and complicate the power attributed to separate-sphere ideology. And we demonstrate a surprising reversal of critical expectation: in fiction, broadly natural spaces were more strongly associated with men, while urban spaces were more aligned with women. As it uncovers spatial patterns in literary history, this study casts new light on well-known texts and reimagines literature's broader engagement with gender and geography.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781009029001
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 22 May 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Element purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Bibliography

Adorno, Theodor and Horkheimer, Max. Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Algee-Hewitt, Mark, Allison, Sarah, Gemma, Marissa, et al. “Canon/Archive: Large-Scale Dynamics in the Literary Field,” Pamphlets of the Stanford Literary Lab, 11 (2016).Google Scholar
Armstrong, Nancy. Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays (1934–41; 1975). Ed. Holquist, Michael. Trans. Emerson, Caryl and Holquist, Michael. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Bamman, David, Popat, Sejal, and Shen, Sheng. “An Annotated Dataset of Literary Entities,” in Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Vol. 1, Minneapolis, MN: Association for Computational Linguistics, 2019, 2138–44.Google Scholar
Bamman, David, Underwood, Ted, and Smith, Noah A., “A Bayesian Mixed Effects Model of Literary Character,” in Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Baltimore: Association for Computational Linguistics, 2014, 370–79.Google Scholar
Berman, Marshall. All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (1982), New York: Penguin Books, 1988.Google Scholar
Bluemel, Kristin and McCluskey, Michael, eds. Rural Modernity in Britain: A Critical Intervention, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Bogart, Dan, You, Xuesheng, Alvarez-Palau, Eduard J., Satchell, Max, and Shaw-Taylor, Leigh. “Railways, Divergence, and Structural Change in 19th Century England and Wales,” Journal of Urban Economics 128 (2022): 123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowen, Elizabeth. The Collected Stories of Elizabeth Bowen, New York: Anchor Books, 2006.Google Scholar
Buck-Morss, Susan. “The Flaneur, the Sandwichman, and the Whore,” New German Critique 39 (1986): 99140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Susan and Mandell., LauraThe Identity Issue,” Journal of Cultural Analytics 1.1 (2018): 118.Google Scholar
Conrad, Joseph. The Secret Agent (1907), ed. Seymour-Smith, Martin, New York: Penguin, 1984.Google Scholar
Cooper, David, Donaldson, Christopher, and Murrieta-Flores, Patricia, eds. Literary Mapping in the Digital Age, London: Routledge, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, Ashley. Mongrel Nation: Diasporic Culture and the Making of Postcolonial Britain, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, Ella Hepworth. The Story of a Modern Woman (1894), ed. Farmer, Steve. Peterborough: Broadview, 2004.Google Scholar
Duplessis, Rachel Blau. Writing beyond the Ending: Narrative Strategies of Twentieth-Century Women Writers, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Edelstein, Dan, Findlen, Paula, Coleman, Nicole, and Ceserani, Giovanna. “Historical Research in a Digital Age: Reflections from the Mapping the Republic of Letters Project,” The American Historical Review 122.2 (2017): 400–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elkin, Lauren. Flâneuse: Women Walk the City in Paris, New York, Tokyo, Venice, and London. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017.Google Scholar
Engel, Laura and Ruth Rutter, Emily. “Women and Archives,” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 40.1 (2021): 513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Elizabeth F. “Alternative Geographies and Urban Parks: Duse Mohamed Ali and Yoshio Markino in Imperial London,” ELH, in press.Google Scholar
Evans, Elizabeth F.The Promises and Limits of Virginia Woolf’s London Parks,” in Virginia Woolf and Transnationalism, ed. Chattopadhyay, Shinjini. Edinburgh University Press, in press.Google Scholar
Evans, Elizabeth F. Threshold Modernism: New Public Women and the Literary Spaces of Imperial London, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Evans, Elizabeth F. and Wilkens, Matthew. “Nation, Ethnicity, and the Geography of British Fiction, 1880–1940,” Journal of Cultural Analytics 3.2 (2018): 148.Google Scholar
Felski, Rita. The Gender of Modernity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernald, Anne. “Taxi! The Modern Taxicab as Feminist Heterotopia,” Modernist Cultures 9.2 (2014): 213–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, Jenny Rose, Grenager, Trond, and Manning, Christopher. “Incorporating Non-local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling,” in Proceedings of the 43nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2005), Ann Arbor: Association for Computational Linguistics, 2005: 363–70.Google Scholar
Friedman, Susan Stanford. Mappings: Feminism and the Cultural Geographies of Encounter, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Gavin, Adrienne E. and Humphries, Andrew F., eds. Transport in British Fiction: Technologies of Movement, 1840–1940, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, Sandra and Gubar, Susan. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Gleber, Anke. The Art of Taking a Walk: Flanerie, Literature, and Film in Weimar Culture, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GoGwilt, Chris. “The Interior: Benjaminian Arcades, Conradian Passages, and the ‘Impasse’ of Jean Rhys,” in Geographies of Modernism: Literatures, Cultures, Spaces, eds. Brooker, Peter and Thacker, Andrew, London: Routledge, 2005: 6575.Google Scholar
Grossman, Jonathan. Charles Dickens’s Networks: Public Transport and the Novel, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Hall, Radclyffe. Miss Ogilvy Finds Herself, London: William Heinemann, 1934.Google Scholar
Heuser, Ryan and Le-Khak, Long. “A Quantitative Literary History of 2,958 Nineteenth-Century British Novels: The Semantic Cohort Method,” Pamphlets of the Stanford Literary Lab 4 (2012).Google Scholar
Hubble, Nick and Tew, Philip, eds. London in Contemporary British Fiction, London: Bloomsbury, 2016.Google Scholar
Jameson, Fredric. “Modernism and Imperialism.” Reprinted as chapter 7 of The Modernist Papers. New York: Verso, 2007. First published, under the same title, as Field Day pamphlet no. 14 (1988) and collected in Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature, ed. Seamus Deane. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1990, 4366.Google Scholar
Jett, Jacob, Capitanu, Boris, Kudeki, Deren et al. The HathiTrust Research Center Extracted Features Dataset (2.0). HathiTrust Research Center.Google Scholar
Jockers, Matthew and Kiriloff, Gabi, “Understanding Gender and Character Agency in the 19th Century Novel,” Journal of Cultural Analytics 2.2 (2017): 126.Google Scholar
Kelley, Joyce. Excursions into Modernism: Women Writers, Travel, and the Body, New York: Routledge, 2016.Google Scholar
Kiberd, Declan. Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Lafferty, John D., McCallum, Andrew, and Pereira, Fernando C. N.. “Conditional Random Fields: Probabilistic Models for Segmenting and Labeling Sequence Data.” Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML ‘01), San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 2001: 282–89.Google Scholar
Lawrence, Karen R. Penelope Voyages: Women and Travel in the British Literary Tradition, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Lessing, Doris. The Golden Notebook, New York: Harper Collins, 2008.Google Scholar
Massey, Doreen. Space, Place, and Gender, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. London: Verso, 2005.Google Scholar
Moretti, Franco. “Operationalizing, or, the Function of Measurement in Literary Theory,” New Left Review 84 (2013): 103–19.Google Scholar
Mullen, John. “Railways in Victorian Fiction,” Technical Report of the British Library, 2014. np.Google Scholar
Mullholland, Terri. British Boarding Houses in Interwar Women’s Literature: Alternative Domestic Spaces, London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Nead, Lynda. Victorian Babylon: People, Streets and Images in Nineteenth-Century London, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Nord, Deborah Epstein. Walking the Victorian Streets: Women, Representation and the City, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortner, Sherry B.Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?Feminist Studies 1.2 (1972): 531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkins, Wendy. Mobility and Modernity in Women’s Novels, 1850s–1930s: Women Moving Dangerously, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.Google Scholar
Parsons, Deborah L. Street Walking the Metropolis: Women, the City and Modernity, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peach, Linden. “‘Re-reading Sickert’s Interiors’: Woolf, English Art and the Representation of Domestic Space,” Locating Woolf: The Politics of Space and Place, eds. Snaith, Anna and Michael, H. Whitworth, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007: 6580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piper, Andrew. Enumerations: Data and Literary Study, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranasinha, Ruvani. Contemporary Diasporic South Asian Women’s Fiction: Gender, Narration and Globalisation, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhys, Jean. Voyage in the Dark (1934), New York: W.W. Norton, 1982.Google Scholar
Richardson, Dorothy. The Tunnel (1919) (Pilgrimage, Vol. II), London: Virago, 1992.Google Scholar
Ryan, Yann C. and Ahnert, Sebastian E., “The Measure of the Archive: The Ro-bustness of Network Analysis in Early Modern Correspondence,” Journal of Cultural Analytics 7 (2021): 5788.Google Scholar
Sanders, Lise Shapiro. Consuming Fantasies: Labor, Leisure, and the London Shopgirl, 1880–1920, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Shiach, Morag. “Modernism, the City and the ‘Domestic Interior,’” Home Cultures 2.3 (2005): 251–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snaith, Anna. Modernist Voyages: Colonial Women Writers in London, 1890–1945, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snaith, Anna. Virginia Woolf: Public and Private Negotiations, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soni, Sandeep, Sihra, Amanpreet, Evans, Elizabeth F., Wilkens, Matthew, and Bamman, David. “Grounding Characters and Places in Narrative Text,” in Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL’23). Toronto: Association for Computational Linguistics (2023): 11723–736.Google Scholar
Stokes, John. “‘Encabsulation’: Horse-Drawn Journeys in Late-Victorian Literature,” Journal of Victorian Culture 15.2 (2010): 239–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thacker, Andrew. Moving through Modernity: Space and Geography in Modernism, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Underwood, Ted. Distant Horizons: Digital Evidence and Literary Change, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Underwood, Ted. “Understanding Genre in a Collection of a Million Volumes,” Interim Performance Report, NEH Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant. 29 December, 2014.Google Scholar
Underwood, Ted, Bamman, David, and Lee, Sabrina, “The Transformation of Gender in English-Language Fiction,” Journal of Cultural Analytics 3.2 (2018): 125.Google Scholar
Underwood, Ted, Kimutis, Patrick, and Witte, Jessica, “NovelTM Datasets for English-Language Fiction, 1700–2009,” Journal of Cultural Analytics 5.2 (2020): 130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Underwood, Ted and Sellers, Jordan. “The Emergence of Literary Diction,” Journal of Digital Humanities 1.2 (2012).Google Scholar
Vadillo, Ana Parejo. Women Poets and Urban Aestheticism: Passengers of Modernity, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vicinus, Martha. Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women, 1850–1920, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Walker, Lynn. “Locating the Global/Rethinking the Local: Suffrage Politics, Architecture, and Space,” Women’s Studies Quarterly 34.12 (2006): 174–96.Google Scholar
Walkowitz, Judith. City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in London, London: Virago, 1992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkens, Matthew. “‘Too Isolated, Too Insular’: American Fiction and the World,” Journal of Cultural Analytics 6 (2021): 5284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkens, Matthew. “Literary Attention Lag,” Work Product, 2015.Google Scholar
Wilkens, Matthew. Textual Geographies. txtgeo.net.Google Scholar
Wilkens, Matthew, Evans, Elizabeth F., Soni, Sandeep, and Bamman, David. “Small Worlds: Measuring the Mobility of Characters in English-Language Fiction,” Journal of Computational Literary Studies 3. 1 (2024), 116.Google Scholar
Wilson, Elizabeth. “The Invisible Flâneur,” New Left Review 191 (1992): 90110.Google Scholar
Wolff, Janet. “The Invisible Flâneuse: Women and the Literature of Modernity,” Theory, Culture & Society 2.3 (1985): 3746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woloch, Alex. The One Versus the Many: Minor Characters and the Space of the Protagonist in the Novel, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Wolff, Janet. “The Invisible Flâneuse: Women and the Literature of Modernity,” Theory, Culture, and Society 2.3 (1985): 3746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway (1925), New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.Google Scholar
Woolf, Virginia. The Pargiters: The Novel-Essay Portion of the Years, ed. and intro. Leaska, Mitchell A., London: Hogarth Press, 1978.Google Scholar
Woolf, Virginia. The Years (1937), New York: Harcourt Brace, 1965.Google Scholar
Woolf, Virginia. The Years, ed. and intro. Lee, Hermione, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Zink, Suzana. Woolf’s Rooms and the Spaces of Modernity, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Gender and Literary Geography
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Gender and Literary Geography
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Gender and Literary Geography
Available formats
×