Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-669899f699-tzmfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-29T15:30:06.390Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Part IV - Individual Differences

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 June 2019

Edited by
John W. Schwieter  and
Alessandro Benati
John W. Schwieter
Affiliation:
Wilfrid Laurier University
Alessandro Benati
Affiliation:
American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Get access

Summary

Working memory (WM) can be thought of as the limited memory capacity that allows us to hold a very small amount of information (e.g., the several digits of our telephone numbers) in our mind and to simultaneously manipulate this information for completing some cognitive tasks in our daily life (Baddeley, 1986; Cowan, 1988). Since the inception of the seminal WM model by the British psychologists Baddeley and Hitch (1974), the concept has received considerable enthusiasm from multiple subfields of cognitive sciences, spanning from such disciplines as psychology, linguistics, neuroscience, biology, and computer science, to anthropology and philosophy (Miller, 2003; Carruthers, 2013; 2015). Concerted efforts are being poured in continuously from diverse research camps, which subsequently give rise to the propagation of a dozen theoretical models of WM (Miyake & Shah, 1999), notwithstanding lingering debates and controversies over the nature and structure of this key construct of human cognition (e.g., Baddeley, 2012; 2017; Cowan, 2014; 2017).

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning , pp. 363 - 474
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

References

Ahmadian, M. J. (2012). The relationship between working memory capacity and L2 oral performance under task-based careful online planning condition. TESOL Quarterly, 46, 165–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alptekin, C., & Erçetin, G. (2009). Assessing the relationship of working memory to L2 reading: Does the nature of comprehension process and reading span task make a difference? System, 37, 627–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alptekin, C., & Erçetin, G. (2010). The role of L1 and L2 working memory in literal and inferential comprehension in L2 reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 22, 206–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altarriba, J., & Isurin, L. (2013). Memory, language, and bilingualism: Theoretical and applied approaches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Andersson, U. (2010). The contribution of working memory capacity to foreign language comprehension in children. Memory, 18, 458–472.Google Scholar
Andrade, J. (2001). Working memory in perspective. Hove: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Atkins, P. W. B., & Baddeley, A. D. (1998). Working memory and distributed vocabulary learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 537–552.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Clarendon.Google ScholarPubMed
Baddeley, A. D. (2003). Working memory and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36(3), 189–208.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: Theories, models and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 1–30.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (2015). Working memory in second language learning. In Wen, Z., Mota, M., & McNeill, A. (eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing (pp. 17–28). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (2017). Modularity, working memory and language acquisition. Second Language Research, 33(3), 299–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., Gathercole, S. E., & Papagno, C. (1998). The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological Review, 105, 158–173.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In Bower, G. A. (ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2012). As time goes by: Temporal constraints in working memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(6), 413–419.Google Scholar
Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2015). Working memory: Loss and reconstruction. Hove: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2013). The evolution of working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(S2), 10371–10378.Google Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2015). The centered mind: What the science of working memory shows us about the nature of human thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cheung, H. (1996). Nonword span as a unique predictor of second-language vocabulary learning. Developmental Psychology, 32, 867–873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christiansen, M. H., & Chater, N. (2016). The now-or-never bottleneck: A fundamental constraint on language. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 39, 1–72.Google Scholar
Constantinidis, C., & Klingberg, T. (2017). The neuroscience of working memory capacity and training. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 17(7), 438–449.Google Scholar
Conway, A. R. A., Jarrold, C., Kane, M. J., Miyake, A., & Towse, J. N. (eds.) (2007). Variation in working memory. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Conway, A. R. A., Moore, A. B., & Kane, M. J. (2009). Recent trends in the cognitive neuroscience of working memory. Cortex, 45(2), 262–268.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (1988). Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information-processing system. Psychological Bulletin, 104(2), 163–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowan, N. (1999). An embedded-processes model of working memory. In Miyake, A. & Shah, P. (eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 62–101). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behaviour and Brain Sciences, 24, 87–185.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (2005). Working memory capacity. New York/Hove: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (2011). Working memory and attention in language use. In Guandouzi, J., Loncke, F., & Williams, M. J. (ed.), The handbook of psycholinguistics and cognitive processes (pp. 75–98). London: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (2014). Working memory underpins cognitive development, learning, and education. Educational Psychology Review, 26, 197–223.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (2017). The many faces of working memory and short-term storage. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 1158–1170.Google Scholar
Crespo, M. (2011). The effects of task complexity on L2 oral production as mediated by differences in working memory capacity. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Barcelona.Google Scholar
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 19, 450–466.Google Scholar
Daneman, M., & Merikle, P. M. (1996). Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 422–433.Google Scholar
D’Angiulli, A., Siegel, L. S., & Serra, E. (2001). The development of reading in English and Italian in bilingual children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 22(4), 479–507.Google Scholar
Dehn, M. J. (2008). Working memory and academic learning: Assessment and intervention. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.Google Scholar
D’Esposito, M., & Postle, B. R. (2015). The cognitive neuroscience of working memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 115–142.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1996). Sequencing in SLA: Phonological memory, chunking and points of order. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 91–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1997). The epigenesis of language: Acquisition as a sequence learning problem. In Ryan, A. and Wray, A. (eds.), Evolving models of language (pp. 41–57). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (2012). Formulaic language and second language acquisition: Zipf and the phrasal Teddy Bear. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 32, 17–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (2017). Chunking. In Hundt, M., Mollin, S., & Pfenninger, S. (eds.), The changing English language: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 113–147). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, R. (2005). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A psychometric study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 141–172.Google Scholar
Engel de Abreu, P. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 974–986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engle, R. W., & Kane, M. (2004). Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control. In Ross, B. (ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 44, pp. 145–199). New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Engle, R. W., Cantor, J., & Carullo, J. J. (1992). Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(5), 972–992.Google Scholar
Farnia, F., & Geva, E. (2011). Cognitive correlates of vocabulary growth in English language learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32, 711–738.Google Scholar
Fehringer, C., & Fry, C. (2007). Hesitation phenomena in the language production of bilingual speakers: The role of working memory. Folia Linguistica, 41(1–2), 37–72.Google Scholar
Fenesi, B., Sana, F., Kim, J. A., & Shore, D. (2015). Reconceptualizing working memory in educational research. Educational Psychology Review, 27(2), 333–351.Google Scholar
Foster, P., Bolibaugh, C., & Kotula, A. (2014). Knowledge of nativelike selections in an L2: The influence of exposure, memory, age of onset and motivation in foreign language and immersion settings. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 36(1), 101–132.Google Scholar
French, L. M., & O’Brien, I. (2008). Phonological memory and children’s second language grammar learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29, 463–487.Google Scholar
Futrell, R., Mahowald, K., & Gibson, E. (2015). Large-scale evidence of dependency length minimization in 37 languages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(33), 10336–10341.Google Scholar
Gathercole, S. E. (2007). Working memory and language. In Gaskell, G. (ed.), Oxford handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 757–770). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gathercole, S., & Baddeley, A. (1993). Working memory and language. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Geva, E., & Ryan, E. (1993). Linguistic and cognitive correlates of academic skills in first and second languages. Language Learning, 43, 5–42.Google Scholar
Gibson, E. (1998). Linguistic complexity: Locality of syntactic dependencies. Cognition, 68, 1–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goo, J. (2012). Corrective feedback and working memory capacity in interaction-driven L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34, 445–474.Google Scholar
Grundy, J. G., & Timmer, K. (2017). Bilingualism and working memory capacity: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Second Language Research, 33(3), 325–340.Google Scholar
Harrington, M., & Sawyer, M. (1992). L2 working memory capacity and L2 reading skill. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 25–38.Google Scholar
Hasson, U., Chen, J., & Honey, C. J. (2015). Hierarchical process memory: Memory as an integral component of information processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19, 304–313.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. A. (2004). Efficiency and complexity in grammars. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hu, X., Ackermann, H., Martin, J., Erb, M., Winklere, S., & Reiterer, S. (2013). Language aptitude for pronunciation in advanced second language (L2) learners: Behavioural predictors and neural substrates. Brain and Language, 127, 366–376.Google Scholar
Hummel, K. (2009). Aptitude, phonological memory, and second language proficiency in nonnovice adult learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 225–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology (Vol. 1). London: McMillan & Company.Google Scholar
Jean, M., & Geva, E. (2009). The development of vocabulary in English as a second language and its role in predicting word recognition ability. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 153–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, G., & Macken, B. (2015). Questioning short-term memory and its measurement: Why digit span measures long-term associative learning. Cognition, 144, 1–13.Google Scholar
Kempe, V., Brooks, P. J., & Kharkhurin, A. (2010). Cognitive predictors of generalization of Russian grammatical gender categories. Language Learning, 60, 127–153.Google Scholar
Kim, Y., Payant, C., & Pearson, P. (2015). The intersection of task-based interaction, task complexity, and working memory. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37, 549–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klingberg, T. (2008). The overflowing brain: Information overload and the limits of working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kormos, J., & Sáfár, A. (2008). Phonological short-term memory, working memory and foreign language performance in intensive language learning. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11(2), 261–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kormos, J., & Trebits, A. (2011). Working memory capacity and narrative task performance. In Robinson, P. (ed.), Second language task complexity: Researching the Cognition Hypothesis of language learning and performance (pp. 267–285). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Leeser, M. (2007). Learner-based factors in L2 reading comprehension and processing grammatical form: Topic familiarity and working memory. Language Learning, 57, 229–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, S. (2013a). The interactions between the effects of implicit and explicit feedback and individual differences in language analytic ability and working memory. The Modern Language Journal, 97, 634–654.Google Scholar
Li, S. (2013b). The differential roles of language analytic ability and working memory in mediating the effects of two types of feedback on the acquisition of an opaque linguistic structure. In Sanz, C. & Lado, B. (eds.), Individual differences, L2 development & language program administration: From theory to application (pp. 32–52). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Li, S. Ellis, R., & Zhu, Y. (in press). The associations between cognitive ability and L2 development under five different instructional conditions. Applied Psycholinguistics.Google Scholar
Li, S., & Fu, M. (2017). Strategic and unpressured within-task planning and their associations with working memory. Language Teaching Research, 22, 1–24.Google Scholar
Linck, J., Osthus, P., Koeth, J. T., & Bunting, M. (2014). Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 861–883.Google Scholar
Liu, H., Xu, C., & Liang, J. (2017). Dependency distance: A new perspective on syntactic patterns in natural languages. Physics of Life Review, 21, 171–193.Google Scholar
Martin, K. I., & Ellis, N. C. (2012). The roles of phonological short-term memory and working memory in L2 grammar and vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34, 179–413.Google Scholar
Masoura, E. V., & Gathercole, S. (2005). Contrasting contributions of phonological short-term memory and long-term knowledge to vocabulary learning in a foreign language. Memory, 13, 422–429.Google Scholar
Miller, G. (1956). The magical number of seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97.Google Scholar
Miller, G. (2003). The cognitive revolution: A historical perspective. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7(3), 141–144.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. (1998). Individual differences in second language proficiency: Working memory as language aptitude. In Healy, A. & Bourne, L. (eds.), Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic studies on training and retention (pp. 339–364). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Oberauer, K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2013). Evidence against decay in verbal working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 380–411.Google Scholar
Oberauer, K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2014). Further evidence against decay in working memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 73, 15–30.Google Scholar
Oberauer, K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2016). Control of information in working memory: Encoding and removal of distractors in the complex-span paradigm. Cognition, 156, 106–128.Google Scholar
Oberauer, K., Farrell, S., Jarrold, C., & Lewandowsky, S. (2016). What limits working memory capacity? Psychological Bulletin, 142(7), 758–799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oberauer, K., Lewandowsky, S., Farrell, S., Jarrold, C., & Greaves, M. (2012). Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19, 779–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Brien, I., Segalowitz, N., Collentine, J., & Freed, B. (2006). Phonological memory and lexical, narrative, and grammatical skills in second language oral production by adult learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 377–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Brien, I., Segalowitz, N., Collentine, J., & Freed, B. (2007). Phonological memory predicts second language oral fluency gains in adults. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29, 557–582.Google Scholar
O’Grady, W. (2017). Working memory and language: From phonology to grammar. Applied Psycholinguistics, 38(6), 1340–1343.Google Scholar
Pierce, L. J., Genesee, F., Delcenserie, A., & Morgan, G. (2017). Variations in phonological working memory: Linking early language experiences and language learning outcomes. Applied Psycholinguistics, 38, 1265–1302.Google Scholar
Révész, A. (2012). Working memory and the observed effectiveness of recasts on different L2 outcome measures. Language Learning, 62(1), 93–132.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (2011). Second language task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis, language learning, and performance. In Robinson, P. (ed.), Second language task complexity: Researching the Cognition Hypothesis of language learning and performance (pp. 3–38). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Roehr, K., & Gánem-Gutiérrez, G. (2009). The status of metalinguistic knowledge in instructed adult L2 learning. Language Awareness, 18(2), 165–181.Google Scholar
Sanz, C., Lin, H., Lado, B., Stafford, C., & Bowden, H. (2016). One size fits all? Learning conditions and working memory capacity in ab initio language development. Applied Linguistics, 37, 669–692.Google Scholar
Serafini, E., & Sanz, C. (2016). Evidence for the decreasing impact of cognitive ability on second language development as proficiency increases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38, 607–646.Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (ed.) (2014). Processing perspectives on task performance. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Skrzypek, A. (2009). Phonological short-term memory and L2 collocational development in adult learners. EUROSLA Yearbook, 9, 160–184.Google Scholar
Speciale, G., Ellis, N. C., & Bywater, T. (2004). Phonological sequence learning and short-term store capacity determine second language vocabulary acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistic, 25, 293–321.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Y., & DeKeyser, R. (2017). Exploratory research on second language practice distribution: An Aptitude × Treatment interaction. Applied Psycholinguistics, 38, 27–56.Google Scholar
Ullman, M. T. (2001). The neural basis of lexicon and grammar in first and second language: The declarative/procedural model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 4(1), 105–122.Google Scholar
Ullman, M. T. (2016). The declarative/procedural model: A neurobiological model of language learning, knowledge and use. In Hickok, G. & Small, S. A. (eds.), The neurobiology of language (pp. 953–968). New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Venkatagiri, H. S., & Levis, J. M. (2007). Phonological awareness and speech comprehensibility: An exploratory study. Language Awareness, 16, 263–277.Google Scholar
Walter, C. (2004). Transfer of reading comprehension skills to L2 linked to mental representation of text and to L2 working memory. Applied Linguistics, 25, 315–339.Google Scholar
Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. (1996). The measurement of verbal working memory and its relation to reading comprehension. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49, 51–74.Google Scholar
Waugh, N. C., & Norman, D. A. (1965). Primary memory. Psychological Review, 72, 89–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wen, Z. (2012). Working memory and second language learning. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 22, 1–22.Google Scholar
Wen, Z. (2015) Working memory in second language acquisition and processing: The phonological/executive model. In Wen, Z., Mota, M. B., & McNeill, M. (eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing (pp. 41–62). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Wen, Z. (2016). Working memory and second language learning: Towards an integrated approach. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Wen, Z. (2017). Using formulaic sequences to measure L2 task-based performance: The role of working memory. In Ahmadian, M. & García Mayo, M. P. (eds.), Multiple perspectives on task-based language teaching and learning (pp. 31–54). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Wen, Z., Mota, M. B., & McNeill, A. (2013). Working memory and SLA: Towards an integrated theory. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 23, 1–18.Google Scholar
Wen, Z., Mota, M. B., & McNeill, A. (2015). Working memory in second language acquisition and processing. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Williams, J. N. (2015). Working memory in SLA research: Challenges and prospects. In Mota, M. B. & McNeill, A. (eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing (pp. 301–307). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Yilmaz, Y. (2013). Relative effects of explicit and implicit feedback: The role of working memory capacity and language analytic ability. Applied Linguistics, 34, 344–368.Google Scholar

References

Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2008). The robustness of aptitude effects in near-native second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 481–509.Google Scholar
Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2009). Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: Listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning, 59, 249–306.Google Scholar
Arroyo, D., & Yilmaz, Y. (in press). The role of language analytic ability in the effectiveness of different feedback timing conditions. In Gurzynski-Weiss, L. (ed.), Expanding individual difference research in the Interaction Approach: Investigating learners, instructors, and other interlocutors. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 366–377.Google Scholar
Bley-Vroman, R. (1990). The logical problem of foreign language learning. Linguistic Analysis, 20, 3–49.Google Scholar
Bley-Vroman, R. (2009). The evolving context of the fundamental difference hypothesis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31, 175–198.Google Scholar
Block, J. H. (1971). Mastery learning: Theory and practice. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Bracht, G. H. (1970). Experimental factors related to aptitude-treatment interactions. Review of Educational Research, 40, 627–645.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1962). The prediction of success in intensive foreign language training. In Glaser, R. (ed.), Training research and education (pp. 87–136). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1966). A parametric study of language training in the Peace Corps. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1973). Implications of aptitude test research and psycholinguistic theory for foreign language teaching. International Journal of Psycholinguistics, 2, 5–14.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1981). Twenty-five years of research in foreign language aptitude. In Diller, K. (ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp. 83–118). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1990). Cognitive abilities in foreign language aptitude: Then and now. In Parry, T. S. & Stansfield, C. W. (eds.), Language aptitude reconsidered (pp. 11–29). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B., & Sapon, S. (1959). Modern Language Aptitude Test: Form A. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B., & Sapon, S. (2002). Manual for the MLAT. Second Language Testing. North Bethesda, MD: Second Language Testing, Inc.Google Scholar
Cronbach, L., & Snow, R. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A handbook for research on interactions. New York: Irvington.Google Scholar
De Graaff, R. (1997). The Esperanto experiment: Effects of explicit instruction on second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 249–276.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499–533.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M., Alfi-Shabtay, I., & Ravid, D. (2010). Cross-linguistic evidence for the nature of age-effects in second language acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31, 413–438.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M. (2012). Interactions between individual differences, treatments, and structures in SLA. Language Learning, 62, 189–200.Google Scholar
Doughty, C. J.., Campbell, S. G., Bunting, M. F., Mislevy, M. A., Bowles, A. R., & Koeth, J. T. (2010). Predicting near-native L2 ability. In Prior, Matthew T., Watanabe, Yukiko, & Lee, Sang-Ki (eds.), Selected proceedings of the 2008 Second Language Research Forum: Exploring SLA perspectives, positions, and practices. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Ehrman, M. E., & Oxford, R. L. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 67–89.Google Scholar
Goo, J. (2012). Corrective feedback and working memory capacity in interaction-driven L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34, 445–474.Google Scholar
Goo, J. (2016). Corrective feedback and working memory capacity: A replication. In Granena, G., Jackson, D. O., & Yilmaz, Y. (eds.), Cognitive individual differences in second language processing and acquisition (pp. 279–302). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Granena, G. (2012). Age differences and cognitive aptitudes for implicit and explicit learning in ultimate L2 attainment. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Maryland.Google Scholar
Granena, G. (2013a). Cognitive aptitudes for second language learning and the LLAMA Language Aptitude Test. In Granena, G. & Long, M. H. (eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment (pp. 105–129). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Granena, G. (2013b). Individual differences in sequence learning ability and second language acquisition in early childhood and adulthood. Language Learning, 63, 665–703.Google Scholar
Granena, G., & Long, M. H. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29, 311–343.Google Scholar
Harley, B., & Hart, D. (1997). Language aptitude and second language proficiency in classroom learners of different starting ages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 379–400.Google Scholar
Harley, B., & Hart, D. (2002). Age, aptitude, and second language learning on a bilingual exchange. In Robinson, P. (ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 302–330). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Hoyer, W. J., & Lincourt, A. E. (1998). Ageing and the development of learning. In Stadler, M. A. & Frensch, P. A. (eds.), Handbook of implicit learning (pp. 445–470). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hyltenstam, K., & Abrahamsson, N. (2003). Maturational Constraints in SLA. In Doughty, C. J. and Long, M. H. (eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 539–588). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Ioup, G., Boustagui, E., El Tigi, M., & Moselle, M. (1994). Reexamining the critical period hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 73–98.Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory & Language, 30, 513–541.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 10081–10086.Google Scholar
Janacsek, K., Fiser, J., & Nemeth, D. (2012). The best time to acquire new skills: Age related differences in implicit sequence learning across the human lifespan. Developmental Science, 15, 496–505.Google Scholar
Kaufman, S. B., DeYoung, C. G., Gray, J. R., Jimenez, L., Brown, J., & Mackintosh, N. (2010). Implicit learning as an ability. Cognition, 116, 321–340.Google Scholar
Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Li, S. (2013). The interactions between the effects of implicit and explicit feedback and individual differences in language analytic ability and working memory. The Modern Language Journal, 97, 634–654.Google Scholar
Linck, J., Hughes, M., Campbell, S., Silbert, N., Tare, M., Jackson, S., Smith, B., Bunting. M. & Doughty, C. J. (2013). Hi-LAB: A new measure of aptitude for high-level language proficiency. Language Learning, 63, 530–566.Google Scholar
Long, M. H. (2005). Problems with supposed counter-evidence to the critical period hypothesis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 287–317.Google Scholar
Long, M. H. (2007). Problems in SLA. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Long, M. H. (2017). Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA): Geopolitics, methodological issues, and some major research questions. Instructed Second Language Acquisition, 1, 7–44.Google Scholar
Long, M. H., & Doughty, C. (2009). The handbook of language teaching. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Mackey, A., Philp, J., Egi, T., Fujii, A., & Tatsumi, T. (2002). Individual differences in working memory, noticing of interactional feedback and L2 development. In Robinson, P. (ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 181–209). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Markessinis, J. (1968). Summary of Dr. John B. Carroll’s “The Foreign Language Attainments of Language Majors in the Senior Year”. Washington, D.C.: Peace Corps.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (2005). LLAMA language aptitude tests. Swansea: Lognostics.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. (1998). Individual differences in second language proficiency: Working memory as language aptitude. In Healy, A. & Bourne, L. Jr. (eds.), Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic studies on training and retention (pp. 339–364). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Novoa, L. K., Fein, D., & Obler, L. (1988). Talent in foreign languages: A case study. In Obler, L. K. & Fein, D. (eds.), The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities (pp. 294–302). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Paradis, M. (2009). Declarative and procedural determinants of second languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Reber, A. S., Walkenfeld, F. F., & Hernstadt, R. (1991). Implicit and explicit learning: Individual differences and IQ. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 888–896.Google ScholarPubMed
Rebuschat, P. (2008). Implicit learning of natural language syntax. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Rebuschat, P., & Williams, J. N. (2006). Dissociating implicit and explicit learning of natural language syntax. In Sun, R. & Miyake, N. (eds.), Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (p. 2594). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Rebuschat, P. & Williams, J. N. (2009). Implicit learning of word order. In Taatgen, N. A. & van Rijn, H. (eds.), Proceedings of the 31st annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 425–430). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
Révész, A. (2012), Working memory and the observed effectiveness of recasts on different L2 outcome measures. Language Learning, 62, 93–132.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (1995). Attention, memory, and the “noticing” hypothesis. Language Learning, 45, 283–331.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (1996). Learning simple and complex second language rules under implicit, incidental, rule-search, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 27–67.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (1997). Individual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit adult second language learning. Language Learning, 47, 45–99.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (2002). Individual differences in intelligence, aptitude and working memory during adult incidental second language learning: A replication and extension of Reber, Walkenfeld, and Hernstadt (1991). In Robinson, P. (ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 211–266). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (2007). Aptitudes, abilities, contexts and practice. In DeKeyser, R. M. (ed.), Practice in second language learning: Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp. 256–286). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sáfár, A., & Kormos, J. (2008). Revisiting problems with foreign language aptitude. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL), 46, 113–136.Google Scholar
Saffran, J. R., Johnson, E. K., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1999). Statistical learning of tone sequences by human infants and adults. Cognition, 70, 27–52.Google Scholar
Saffran, J. R., Newport, E. L., & Aslin, R. N. (1996). Word segmentation: The role of distributional cues. Journal of Memory and Language, 35, 606–621.Google Scholar
Sawyer, M., & Ranta, L. (2001). Aptitude, individual differences, and instructional design. In Robinson, P. (ed.), Cognition and instructed second language learning (pp. 319–353). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sheen, Y. (2007). The effects of corrective feedback, language aptitude, and learner attitudes on the acquisition of English articles. In Mackey, A. (ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition (pp. 301–322). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London: Arnold.Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (2015). Foreign language aptitude and its relationship with grammar: A critical overview. Applied Linguistics, 36, 367–384.Google Scholar
Skinner, E. I., & Fernandes, M. A. (2007). Neural correlates of recollection and familiarity: A review of neuroimaging and patient data. Neuropsychologia, 45, 2163–2179.Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., & Patton, J. (1995). Prediction of performance in first-year foreign language courses: Connections between native and foreign language learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 638–655.Google Scholar
Speciale, G., Ellis, N., & Bywater, T. (2004). Phonological sequence learning and short-term store capacity determine second language vocabulary acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 293–321.Google Scholar
Tagarelli, K., Borges-Mota, M., & Rebuschat, P. (2011). The role of working memory in implicit and explicit language learning. In Carlson, L., Hölscher, C., & Shipley, T. (eds.), Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2061–2066). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
Trofimovich, P., Ammar, A., & Gatbonton, E. (2007). How effective are recasts? The role of attention, memory, and analytical ability. In Mackey, A. (ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition (pp. 144–171). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Vatz, K., Tare, M., Jackson, S. R., & Doughty, C. J. (2013). Aptitude-treatment interaction studies in second language acquisition: Findings and methodology. In Granena, G. & Long, M. H. (eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment (pp. 271–290). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Williams, J. N. (1999). Memory, attention, and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 1–48.Google Scholar
Williams, J. N. (2005). Learning without awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 269–304.Google Scholar
Woltz, D. J. (2003). Implicit cognitive processes as aptitudes for learning. Educational Psychologist, 38, 95–104.Google Scholar
Yilmaz, Y. (2013). Relative effects of explicit and implicit feedback: The role of working memory capacity and language analytic ability. Applied Linguistics, 34, 344–368.Google Scholar
Yonelinas, A. P. (2001). Components of episodic memory: The contribution of recollection and familiarity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 356, 1363–1374.Google Scholar

References

Abbott, S. (ed.) (2015). The glossary of education reform. Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/hidden-curriculum.Google Scholar
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2017). Sixty years of language motivation research. SAGE Open, 7(1).Google Scholar
Al-Hoorie, A. H. & MacIntyre, P. D. (eds.) (2019). Contemporary language motivation theory—60 years since Gardner and Lambert (1959). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Au, S. Y. (1988). A critical appraisal of Gardner’s social-psychological theory of second-language (L2) learning. Language Learning, 38, 75–100.Google Scholar
Boo, Z., Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). L2 motivation research 2005–2014: Understanding a publication surge and a changing landscape. System, 55, 145–157.Google Scholar
Brown, H. D. (1990). M&Ms for language classrooms? Another look at motivation. In Alatis, J. E. (ed.), Georgetown University roundtable on language and linguistics (pp. 383–393). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Chan, L., Dörnyei, Z., & Henry, A. (2015). Learner archetypes and signature dynamics in the language classroom: A retrodictive qualitative modelling approach to studying L2 motivation. In Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P., & Henry, A. (eds.), Motivational dynamics in language learning (pp. 238–259). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5, 160–170.Google Scholar
Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41, 469–512.Google Scholar
Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 19–36.Google Scholar
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2015). Identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 192–201.Google Scholar
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273–284.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2009a). The L2 motivational self system. In Dörnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9–42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2009b). The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (2002). Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation: Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics, 23, 421–62.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., Henry, A., & Muir, C. (2016). Motivational currents in language learning: Frameworks for focused interventions. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M. (2014). Motivating learners, motivating teachers: Building vision in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P. D., & Henry, A. (eds.) (2015). Motivational dynamics in language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). The psychology of the language learner revisited. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, U. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd edn.). Harlow: Pearson.Google Scholar
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd edn.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59–109.Google Scholar
Gabryś-Barker, D, & Gałajda, D. (eds.) (2016). Positive psychology perspectives on foreign language learning and teaching. Basel: Springer International Publishing.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. C. (2010). Motivation and second language acquisition: The socio-educational model. New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. (1959). Motivational variables in second language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 13, 266–272.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. C., & Tremblay, P. F. (1994). On motivation, research agendas, and theoretical frameworks. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 359–368.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340.Google Scholar
Irie, K., & Ryan, S. (2015). Study abroad and the dynamics of change in learner L2 self-concept. In Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P., & Henry, A. (eds.), Motivational dynamics in language learning (pp. 343–366). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Lamb, M., Csizer, K., Henry, A., & Ryan, S. (eds.) (forthcoming). The Palgrave handbook of motivation for language learning. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D. (2016). So far, so good: An overview of positive psychology and its contributions to SLA. In Gabryś-Barker, D. & Gałajda, D. (eds.), Positive psychology perspectives on foreign language learning and teaching (pp. 3–20). Basel: Springer International Publishing.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D., Gregersen, T., & Mercer, S. (2016). Positive psychology in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D., MacKinnon, S. P., & Clément, R. (2009). From integrative motivation to possible selves: The baby, the bathwater and the future of language learning motivation research. In Dörnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 43–65). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D., & Serroul, A. (2015). Motivation on a per-second timescale: Examining approach-avoidance motivation during L2 task performance. In Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P. D., & Henry, A. (eds.), Motivational dynamics in language learning (pp. 109–138). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969.Google Scholar
Mercer, S. (2012). Self-concept: Situating the self. In Mercer, S., Ryan, S., & Williams, M. (eds.), Psychology for language learning: Insights from research, theory and practice (pp. 10–25). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Mercer, S. (2017). Exploring psychology in language learning and teaching. In Pattison, T. (ed.), IATEFL 2016 Birmingham Conference Selections (pp. 20–21). Faversham: IATEFL.Google Scholar
Mercer, S., Ryan, S., & Williams, M. (eds.) (2012). Psychology in language learning: Insights from theory and research. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Noels, K. A., Clément, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (1999). Perceptions of teachers’ communicative style and students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The Modern Language Journal, 83, 23–34.Google Scholar
Noels, K. A., Clément, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (2001). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and integrative orientations of French Canadian learners of English. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57, 424–444.Google Scholar
Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Why are you learning a second language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning, 50, 57–85.Google Scholar
Norton, B. (2001). Non-participation, imagined communities and the language classroom. In Breen, M. P. (ed.), Learner contributions to language learning (pp. 159–171). Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Peirce, B. (1995). Social Identity, investment, and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 9–31.Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M. (2007). Motivation and emotion: A new look and approach for two reemerging fields. Motivation and Emotion, 31(1), 1–3.Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation and the organization of human behavior: Three reasons for the reemergence of a field. In Ryan, R. M. (ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 554–564). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford Publishing.Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M., & Legate, N. (2012). Through a fly’s eye: Multiple yet overlapping perspectives on future directions for human motivation research. In Ryan, R. M. (ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 554–564). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ryan, S. (2009). Self and identity in L2 motivation in Japan: The ideal L2 self and Japanese learners of English. In Dörnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 120–143). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Saito, K., Dewaele, J.-M., & Hanzawa, K. (2017). A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between motivation and late second language speech learning in classroom settings. Language and Speech, 3, 614–632.Google Scholar
Scheidecker, D., & Freeman, W. (1999). Bringing out the best in students: How legendary teachers motivate kids. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Sugita McEown, M., Noels, K. A., & Chaffee, K. E. (2014). At the interface of the socio- educational model, self-determination theory and the L2 motivational self system models. In Csizér, K. & Magid, M. (eds.), The impact of self-concept on language learning (pp. 19–50). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The L2 motivational self system amongst Chinese, Japanese and Iranian learners of English: A comparative study. In Dörnyei, Z. & Ushioda, E. (eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self. Bristol: Mulitlingual Matters.Google Scholar
Takahashi, S. (2005). Pragmalinguistic awareness: Is it related to motivation and proficiency? Applied Linguistics, 216(1), 90–120.Google Scholar
Thompson, A. S. (2017), Language learning motivation in the United States: An examination of language choice and multilingualism. The Modern Language Journal, 101, 483–500.Google Scholar
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 65(6), 384–399.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (1994). L2 motivation as a qualitative construct. Teanga, 14, 76–84.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (1998). Effective motivational thinking: A cognitive theoretical approach to the study of language learning motivation. In Soler, E. A. & Espurz, V. C. (eds.), Current issues in English language methodology (pp. 77–89). Castelló de la Plana: Universitat Jaume.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (2001). Language learning at university: Exploring the role of motivational thinking. In Dörnyei, Z. & Schmidt, R. (eds.), Motivation and second language learning (pp. 91–124). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (2008). Motivation and good language learners. In Griffiths, C. (ed.), Lessons from good language learners (pp. 19–34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of emergent motivation, self and identity. In Dörnyei, Z. and Ushioda, E. (eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 215–228). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (2010). Motivation and SLA: Bridging the gap. EUROSLA Yearbook, 10, 5–20.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (2012). Motivation: L2 learning as a special case? In Mercer, S., Ryan, S., & Williams, M. (eds.), Psychology for language learning: Insights from research, theory and practice (pp. 58–73). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Ushioda, E. (2016). Language learning motivation through a small lens: A research agenda. Language Teaching, 49(4), 564–577.Google Scholar
Walker, C. J., & Symons, C. (1997). The meaning of human motivation. In Bess, J. L. (ed.), Teaching well and liking it: Motivating faculty to teach effectively (pp. 3–18). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Weiner, B. (2010). The development of an attribution-based theory motivation: A history of ideas. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 28–36.Google Scholar
Williams, M., & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Williams, M., Mercer, S., & Ryan, S. (2015). Exploring psychology in language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

References

Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2008). The robustness of aptitude effects in near-native second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 481–509.Google Scholar
Al-Thubaiti, K. A. (2010). Age effects in a minimal input setting on the acquisition of English morpho-syntactic and semantic properties by L1 speakers of Arabic. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Essex, Wivenhoe.Google Scholar
Andrew, P. (2012). The social construction of age: Adult foreign language learners. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Antoniou, M., Gunasekera, G. M., & Wong, P. C. M. (2013). Foreign language training as cognitive therapy for age-related cognitive decline: A hypothesis for future research. Neuroscience & Behavioural Reviews, 37(10), 2689–2698.Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. (1984). Fifty years of second language attrition: Implications for programmatic research. The Modern Language Journal, 68, 105–118.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Craik, F. I. M. (2010). Cognitive and linguistic processing in the bilingual mind. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 19–23.Google Scholar
Bigelow, M., del Mas, B., Hansen, K., & Tarone, E. (2006). Literacy and the processing of oral recasts in SLA. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 1–25.Google Scholar
Birdsong, D. (2005). Nativelikeness and non-nativelikeness in L2A research. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 319–328.Google Scholar
Birdsong, D., & Paik, J. (2008). Second language acquisition and ultimate attainment. In Spolsky, B. & Hult, F. (eds.), Handbook of educational linguistics (pp. 424–436). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Burke, D., & MacKay, D. (1997). Memory, language, and ageing. Ageing: Science, Medicine, and Society, 352, 1845–1856.Google Scholar
Cook, V. (2002). Background to the L2 User. In Cook, V. (ed.), Portraits of the L2 User (pp. 1–28). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Council of the European Union. (1997). Council resolution on the early teaching of European Union languages. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31998Y0103%2801%29.Google Scholar
Cox, J., & Sanz, C. (2015). Deconstructing PI for the ages: Explicit instruction vs. practice in young and older adult bilinguals. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL), 2, 225–248.Google Scholar
Craik, F., & Bialystok, E. (2005). Intelligence and executive control: Evidence from aging and bilingualism. Cortex, 41, 222–224.Google Scholar
Davies, A. (2003). The native speaker: Myth and reality. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22(4), 499–533.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. (2013). Age effects in second language learning: Stepping stones toward better understanding. Language Learning, 63(1), 52–67.Google Scholar
Dwaik, R., & Shehadeh, A. (2015). The starting age and ultimate attainment of English learning in the Palestinian context. English Language Teaching, 8(10), 91–99.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (2005). At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 305–352.Google Scholar
European Commission (2011). Language learning at pre-primary school level: Making it efficient and sustainable: A policy handbook. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E. (2009). Give input a chance! In Piske, T. & Young-Scholten, M. (eds.), Input matters in SLA (pp. 175–190). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E., & Liu, S. (2001). The effect of experience on adults’ acquisition of a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 527–552.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 78–104.Google Scholar
Forsberg Lundell, F., & Bartning, I. (eds.) (2015). Cultural migrants and optimal language acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Gabryś-Barker, D. (ed.) (2017). Third age learners of foreign languages. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
García Mayo, M.P. (ed.) (2017). Learning foreign languages in primary school. Research insights. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
García Mayo, M. P., & García Lecumberri, M. L. (eds.) (2003). Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language: Theoretical issues and field work. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Gómez Bedoya, M. (2008). El aprendizaje en la tercera edad. Una aproximación en la clase de ELE: Los aprendientes mayores japoneses en el Instituto Cervantes de Tokio. Unpublished master’s thesis, Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid.Google Scholar
Grady, C. L., & Craik, F. I. M. (2000). Changes in memory processing with age. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10, 224–231.Google Scholar
Granena, G., & Long, M. H. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29(3), 577–600. doi:10.1177/0267658312461497.Google Scholar
Green, D. (2017). The interactional challenge: L2 learning and use in the third age. In Gabryś-Barker, D. (ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Grosjean, F. (1998). Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 131–149.Google Scholar
Hall, C. B., Lipton, R. B., Sliwinski, M., Katz, M. J., Derby, C. A., & Verghese, J. (2009). Cognitive activities delay onset of memory decline in persons who develop dementia. Neurology, 73(5), 356–361.Google Scholar
Harada, T. (2014). Not age but length of learning matters in second language speech learning in a minimal input situation. Poster presented at the Conference of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL), Portland, OR, March.Google Scholar
Hopp, H., & Schmid, M. (2013). Perceived foreign accent in first language attrition and second language acquisition: The impact of age of acquisition and bilingualism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(2), 361–394.Google Scholar
Huang, B., & Chang, S. (2015). Not all early birds get the worm: The effects of early instruction on long-term foreign language outcomes. Paper presented at the Conference of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL), Toronto, March.Google Scholar
Jaekel, N., Schurig, M., Florian, M., & Ritterb, M. (2017). From early starters to late finishers? A longitudinal study of early foreign language learning in school. Language Learning, 67(3), 631–664.Google Scholar
Jia, G., Aaronson, D., & Wu, Y. (2002). Long-term language attainment of bilingual immigrants: Predictive variables and language group differences. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 599–621.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60–99.Google Scholar
Kinsella, C., & Singleton, D. (2014). Much more than age. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 441–462.Google Scholar
Kliesch, M., Giroud, N., Pfenninger, S. E., & Meyer, M. (2018). Research on second language acquisition in old adulthood: What we have and what we need. In Gabryś-Barker, D. (ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages (pp. 48–76). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Klingberg, T. (2010). Training and plasticity of working memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(7), 317–324.Google Scholar
Kozar, O., & Yates, L. (2017). Factors in language learning after 40: Insights from a longitudinal study. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL).Google Scholar
Krashen, S. D., Long, M. H., & Scarcella, R. C. (1979). Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 573–582. Reprinted in Krashen, S. D., Scarcella, R. C., & Long, M. H. (eds.) (1982), Child–adult differences in second language acquisition (pp. 161–172). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Kuppens, A. H. (2010). Incidental foreign language acquisition from media exposure. Learning, Media and Technology, 35(1), 65–85.Google Scholar
Larson-Hall, J. (2008). Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation. Second Language Research, 24(1), 35–63.Google Scholar
Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Llanes, À., & Muñoz, C. (2013). Age effects in a study abroad context: Children and adults studying abroad and at home. Language Learning, 63, 63–90.Google Scholar
Long, M. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251–285.Google Scholar
Long, M. (2005). Problems with supposed counter-evidence to the Critical Period Hypothesis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43(4), 287–317.Google Scholar
Long, M. (2013). Maturational constraints on child and adult SLA. In Granena, G. & Long, M. (eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment (pp. 3–41). Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Mackey, A., Adams, R., Stafford, C., & Winke, P. (2010). Exploring the relationship between modified output and working memory capacity. Language Learning, 60, 501–533.Google Scholar
Mackey, A., & Sachs, R. (2012). Older learners in SLA research: A first look at working memory, feedback, and L2 development. Language Learning, 62(3), 704–740.Google Scholar
Moyer, A. (2004). Age, accent and experience in second language acquisition. An integrated approach to critical period inquiry. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Moyer, A. (2013). Foreign accent: The phenomenon of non-native speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Moyer, A. (2014). Exceptional outcomes in L2 phonology: The critical factors of learner engagement and self-regulation. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 418–440.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (ed.) (2006a). Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2006b). The effects of age on foreign language learning: The BAF Project. In Muñoz, C. (ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning (pp. 1–40). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2008a). Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. Applied Linguistics, 24(4), 578–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2008b). Age-related differences in foreign language learning. Revisiting the empirical evidence. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL), 46(3), 197–220.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2011). Is input more significant than starting age in foreign language acquisition? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL), 49, 113–133.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2014a). Complexities and interactions of age in second language learning: Broadening the research agenda. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 369–373.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2014b). Contrasting effects of starting age and input on the oral performance of foreign language learners. Applied Linguistics, 35(4), 463–482.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C., Cadierno, T., & Casas, I. (2018). Different starting points for early foreign language learning: A comparative study with Danish and Spanish young learners of English. Language Learning, 68(4), 1076–1109.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C., & Llanes, À. (2014). Study abroad and changes in degree of foreign accent in children and adults. The Modern Language Journal, 98(1), 432–449.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C., & Singleton, D. (2011). A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment. Language Teaching, 44(1), 1–35.Google Scholar
Murphy, V. (2014). Second language learning in the early school years. Trends and contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Mihaljevíc Djigunovic, J. M. (2011). All shades of every color: An overview of early teaching and learning of foreign languages. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 95–119.Google Scholar
Ojima, S., Matsuba-Kurita, H., Nakamura, N., Hoshino, T., & Hagiwara, H. (2011). Age and amount of exposure to a foreign language during childhood: Behavioral and ERP data on the semantic comprehension of spoken English by Japanese children. Neuroscience Research, 70(2), 197–205.Google Scholar
Ortega, L. (2005). For what and for whom is our research? The ethical as transformative lens in instructed SLA. The Modern Language Journal, 89, 427–443.Google Scholar
Paradis, J. (2011). Individual differences in child English second language acquisition: Comparing child-internal and child-external factors. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 1(3), 213–237.Google Scholar
Paradis, M. (2009). Declarative and procedural determinants of second languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Park, D., Lautenschlager, G., Hedden, T., Davidson, N., Smith, A., & Smith, P. (2002). Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17, 299–320.Google Scholar
Park, D., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173–196.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S., & Singleton, D. (2016). Affect trumps age: A person in-context relational view of age and motivation in SLA. Second Language Research, 32(3), 311–345.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S., & Singleton, D. (2017). Beyond age effects in instructional L2 learning. Revisiting the age factor. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ramírez Gómez, D. (2014). Older-adult foreign language learning: Instructors’ beliefs and some recommendations. In Sonda, N. & Krause, A. (eds.), JALT 2013 Conference Proceedings (pp. 229–239). Tokyo: Japan Association for Language Teaching.Google Scholar
Ramírez Gómez, D. (2016). Language teaching and the older adult. The significance of experience. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Rastelli, S. (2014). Discontinuity in second language acquisition. The switch between statistical and grammatical learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ryan, S., & Dörnyei, Z. (2013). The long-term evolution of language motivation and the L2 self. In Berndt, A. (ed.), Fremdsprachen in der Perspektive lebenslangen Lernens (pp. 89–100). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (2004). What and when of cognitive aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 140–144.Google Scholar
Singleton, D. (2017). Really late learners: Some research context and some practical hints. In Gabryś-Barker, D. (ed.), Third age learners of foreign languages. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Singleton, D., & Pfenninger, S. (2018). Bilingualism in midlife. In Ortega, L., & De Houwer, A. (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of bilingualism (pp. 76–100). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Singleton, D., & Ryan, L. (2004). Language acquisition: The age factor (2nd edn.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Sun, H. (2015). Predictors and stages of very young child EFL learners’ English development in China. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Groningen.Google Scholar
Sun, H., Steinkrauss, R., Tendeiro, J., & de Bot, K. (2016). Individual differences in very young children’s English acquisition in China: Internal and external factors. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(3), 550–566.Google Scholar
Unsworth, S., de Bot, K., Persson, L., & Prins, T. (2012). Final Report: Foreign languages in primary school project. Proceedings of the foreign languages in primary schools project: Presentation of results of the FLiPP-research, Leerhotel Het Klooster, Amersfoort.Google Scholar
Unsworth, S., Persson, L., Prins, T., & de Bot, K. (2015). An investigation of factors affecting early foreign language learning in the Netherlands. Applied Linguistics, 36, 527–548.Google Scholar
Van der Hoeven, N., & de Bot, K. (2012). Relearning in the elderly: Age-related effects on the size of savings. Language Learning, 62(1), 42–67.Google Scholar
Verghese, J., Lipton, R. B., Katz, M. J., Hall, C. B., Derby, C. A., Kuslansky, G., Ambrose, A. F., Sliwinski, M., & Buschke, H. (2003). Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(25), 2508–2516.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, A. J., & Yang, L. (2016). Inhibition plasticity in older adults: Practice and transfer effects using multiple task approach. Neural Plasticity, 2016, 1–12.Google Scholar

References

Andema, S. (2014). Promoting digital literacy in African education: ICT innovations in a Ugandan primary teachers’ college. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Retrieved from https://open.library.ubc.ca/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0167565.Google Scholar
Arkoudis, S., & Davison, C. (guest eds.) (2008). Chinese students: Perspectives on their social, cognitive, and linguistic investment in English medium interaction [Special issue]. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 18(1).Google Scholar
Atkinson, D. (1999). TESOL and culture. TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), 625–654.Google Scholar
Baker, S. (2013). Conceptualising the use of Facebook in ethnographic research: As tool, as data and as context. Ethnography & Education, 8(2), 131–145.Google Scholar
Ballinger, S. (2017). Examining peer language use and investment in a distinct North American immersion context. International Multilingual Research Journal, 11(3), 184–198.Google Scholar
Barkhuizen, G. (2016). A short story approach to analyzing teacher (imagined) identities over time. TESOL Quarterly, 50(3), 655–683.Google Scholar
Bearse, C., & de Jong, E. J. (2008). Cultural and linguistic investment: Adolescents in a secondary two-way immersion program. Equity & Excellence in Education, 41(3), 325–340.Google Scholar
Block, D. (2007). The rise of identity in SLA research, post Firth and Wagner (1997). The Modern Language Journal, 91(1), 863–876.Google Scholar
Block, D. (2010). Researching language and identity. In Paltridge, B. & Phakti, A. (eds.), Continuum companion to research methods in applied linguistics (pp. 337–349). London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Block, D. (2014). Social class and applied linguistics. Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: A critical introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Blommaert, J. (2010). The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1977). The economics of linguistic exchanges. Information, 16(6), 645–668.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In Richardson, J. F. (ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). New York: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1987). What makes a social class? On the theoretical and practical existence of groups. Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 32, 1–17.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1990). The logic of practice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (2000). Pascalian meditations. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Büscher, M., & Urry, J. (2009). Mobile methods and the empirical. European Journal of Social Theory, 12(1), 99–116.Google Scholar
Canagarajah, A. S. (2013). Negotiating translingual literacy: An enactment. Research in the Teaching of English, 48(1), 40–67.Google Scholar
Clark, J. B. (2009). Multilingualism, citizenship, and identity: Voices of youth and symbolic investments in an urban, globalized world. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2010). New media, new learning. In Cole, D. and Pullen, D. (eds.), Multiliteracies in motion: Current theory and practice (pp. 87–104). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (2006). Identity texts: The imaginative construction of self through multiliteracies pedagogy. In García, O., Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Torres-Guman, M. (eds.), Imagining multilingual schools: Languages in education and glocalization (pp. 51–68). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Darvin, R. (2015). Representing the margins: Multimodal performance as a tool for critical reflection and pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 49(3), 590–600.Google Scholar
Darvin, R. (2016). Language and identity in the digital age. In Preece, S. (ed.), Routledge handbook of language and identity (pp. 523–540). Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Darvin, R. (2017). Language, power and critical digital literacy. In Thorne, S. & May, S. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Language and Education (Vol. 9, pp. 1–14) New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2014). Social class, identity, and migrant students. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 13(2), 111–117.Google Scholar
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2015). Identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 36–56.Google Scholar
Davies, J., & Merchant, G. (2009). Web 2.0 for schools: Learning and social participation. New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
De Costa, P. I. (2010). Reconceptualizing language, language learning, and the adolescent immigrant language learner in the age of postmodern globalization. Language and Linguistics Compass, 4(9), 769–781.Google Scholar
De Costa, P. I., & Norton, B. (2017), Introduction: Identity, transdisciplinarity, and the good language teacher. The Modern Language Journal, 101, 3–14.Google Scholar
Deters, P., Gao, X., Miller, E., & Vitanova, G. (2015). Theorizing and analyzing agency in second language learning: Interdisciplinary approaches. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (eds.) (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Douglas Fir Group (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world. The Modern Language Journal, 100, 19–47.Google Scholar
Duchêne, A., & Heller, M. (eds.) (2012). Language in late capitalism: Pride and profit (Vol. 1). Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Duchêne, A., Moyer, M., & Roberts, C. (eds.) (2013). Language, migration and social inequalities: A critical sociolinguistic perspective on institutions and work. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Early, M., & Norton, B. (2014). Revisiting English as medium of instruction in rural African classrooms. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(7), 1–18.Google Scholar
Eynon, R., Fry, J., & Schroeder, R. (2008). The ethics of internet research. In Fielding, N., Lee, R., & Blank, G. (eds.), The SAGE handbook of online research methods (pp. 23–41). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Firth, A., & Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication, and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA research. The Modern Language Journal, 81(3), 285–300.Google Scholar
Foucault, M. (2008). The birth of biopolitics (trans. G. Burchell). London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gee, J. P., & Hayes, E. R. (2011). Language and learning in the digital age. Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gao, X., Cheng, H., & Kelly, P. (2008). Supplementing an uncertain investment? Mainland Chinese students practising English together in Hong Kong. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 18(1), 9–29.Google Scholar
Gearing, N., & Roger, P. (2017). “I’m never going to be part of it”: Identity, investment and learning Korean. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 39(2), 155–168.Google Scholar
Gu, M. (2008). Identity construction and investment transformation: College students from non-urban areas in China. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 18(1), 49–70.Google Scholar
Gumperz, J. (1982). Language and social identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hafner, C. A. (2014). Embedding digital literacies in English language teaching: Students’ digital video projects as multimodal ensembles. TESOL Quarterly, 48(4), 655–685.Google Scholar
Haneda, M. (2005). Investing in foreign-language writing: A study of two multicultural learners. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(4), 269–290.Google Scholar
Higgins, C. (ed.) (2011). Identity formation in globalizing contexts: Language learning in the new millennium (Vol. 1). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hine, C. (2015). Ethnography for the internet: Embedded, embodied and everyday. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.Google Scholar
Ito, M., Baumer, S., Bittanti, M., Cody, R., Herr-Stephenson, B., Horst, H. A., …, Tripp, L. (2010) Hanging out, messing around, and geeking out. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Janks, H. (2010). Literacy and power. New York/London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Jones, R. H., & Hafner, C. A. (2012). Understanding digital literacies: A practical introduction. Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kamada, L. (2010). Hybrid identities and adolescent girls. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Kanno, Y., & Norton, B. (eds.) (2003). Imagined communities and educational possibilities [Special edition]. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 2(4).Google Scholar
Kramsch, C. (2009). The multilingual subject. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kramsch, C. (2013). Afterword. In Norton, B., Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation (2nd edn.) (pp. 192–201). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Lam, W. S. E. (2004). Second language socialization in a bilingual chat room: Global and local considerations. Language Learning & Technology, 8(3), 44–65.Google Scholar
Lam, W. S. E. (2013). Multilingual practices in transnational digital contexts. TESOL Quarterly, 47(4), 820–825.Google Scholar
Leander, K. (2008). Toward a connective ethnography of online/offline literacy networks. In Coiro, J., Knobel, M., Lankshear, C., and Leu, D. (eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 33–65). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lewis, C., & Tierney, J. D. (2011). Mobilizing emotion in an urban English classroom. Changing English, 18(3), 319–329.Google Scholar
Luke, C. (2003). Pedagogy, connectivity, multimodality, and interdisciplinarity. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(3), 397–403.Google Scholar
McKay, S. L., & Wong, S. L. C. (1996). Multiple discourses, multiple identities: Investment and agency in second-language learning among Chinese adolescent immigrant students. Harvard Educational Review, 66(3), 577–609.Google Scholar
Menard-Warwick, J. (2009). Gendered identities and immigrant language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Mercer, S., & Williams, M. (eds.) (2014). Multiple perspectives on the self in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Miller, E., & Kubota, R. (2013). Second language identity construction. In Herschensohn, J. & Young-Scholten, M. (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 230–250). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Moje, E., & Luke, A. (2009). Literacy and identity: Examining the metaphors in history and contemporary research. Reading Research Quarterly, 44(4), 415–437.Google Scholar
Motha, S., & Lin, A. (2014). “Non-coercive rearrangements”: Theorizing desire in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 48(2), 331–359.Google Scholar
Nelson, M. E., Hull, G. A., & Roche-Smith, J. (2008). Challenges of multimedia self-presentation taking, and mistaking the show on the road. Written Communication, 25(4), 415–440.Google Scholar
Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow: Longman/Pearson Education.Google Scholar
Norton, B. (2013). Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation (2nd edn.). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Norton, B. (guest ed.) (2014). Multilingual literacy and social change in African communities [Special issue]. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(7).Google Scholar
Norton, B. (2015). Identity, investment, and faces of English internationally. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 38(4), 375–391.Google Scholar
Norton, B. (2018). Identity and the ownership of English. In Fuad, A. (ed). The nonnative English teacher. TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching (pp. 1–6). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Norton, B., & Gao, Y. (2008). Identity, investment, and Chinese learners of English. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 18(1), 109–120.Google Scholar
Norton, B., Jones, S., & Ahimbisibwe, D. (2011). Learning about HIV/AIDS in Uganda: Digital resources and language learner identities. Canadian Modern Language Review, 67(4), 568–589.Google Scholar
Norton, B., & Williams, C. J. (2012). Digital identities, student investments and eGranary as a placed resource. Language and Education, 26(4), 315–329.Google Scholar
Norton Peirce, B. (1995). Social identity, investment, and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 9–31.Google Scholar
O’Keefe, A., McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (2007). From corpus to classroom: Language use and language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ortega, L. (2009). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford/New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Pavlenko, A., & Blackledge, A. (eds.) (2004). Negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Pittaway, D. S. (2004). Investment and second language acquisition. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 1(4), 203–218.Google Scholar
Potowski, K. (2004). Student Spanish use and investment in a dual immersion classroom: Implications for second language acquisition and heritage language maintenance. The Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 75–101.Google Scholar
Preece, S. (ed.) (2016). Routledge handbook of language and identity. Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rojo, L. M. (2013). Capitalising students through linguistic practices: A comparative analysis of new educational programmes in a global era. In Duchêne, A., Moyer, M., & Roberts, C. (eds.), Language, migration and social inequalities: A critical sociolinguistic perspective on institutions and work (pp. 118–146). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Silverstein, M. (2003). Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. Language & Communication, 23(3–4), 193–229.Google Scholar
Skilton-Sylvester, E. (2002). Should I stay or should I go? Investigating Cambodian women’s participation and investment in adult ESL programs. Adult Education Quarterly, 53(1), 9–26.Google Scholar
Stornaiuolo, A., & Hall, M. (2014). Tracing resonance: Qualitative research in a networked world. In Gudmundsdottir, G. & Vasbø, K. (eds.), Methodological challenges when exploring digital learning spaces in education (pp. 29–43). Rotterdam: Sense.Google Scholar
Stornaiuolo, A., Higgs, J., & Hull, G. (2013). Social media as authorship: Methods for studying literacies and communities online. In Albers, P., Holbrook, T., & Flint, A. (eds.), New literacy research methods (pp. 224–237). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Stranger-Johannessen, E. (2017). The African Storybook, teachers’ resources and pedagogical practices. International Journal of Educational Development, 52, 26–36.Google Scholar
Stranger-Johannessen, E., & Norton, B. (2017). The African Storybook and language teacher identity in digital times. The Modern Language Journal, 101, 45–60.Google Scholar
Swain, M., & Deters, P. (2007). “New” mainstream SLA theory: Expanded and enriched. The Modern Language Journal, 91(S1), 820–836.Google Scholar
Temples, A., & Nelson, G. (2013). Intercultural computer-mediated communication: insights from corpus-based analysis. In Belcher, D. and Nelson, G. (eds.), Critical and corpus-based approaches to intercultural rhetoric (pp. 154–179). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Thorne, S. L., & Black, R. W. (2011). Identity and interaction in internet-mediated contexts. In Higgins, C. (ed.), Identity formation in globalizing contexts: Language learning in the new millennium (Vol. 1, pp. 257–278). Berlin: de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Thorne, S. L., Sauro, S., & Smith, B. (2015). Technologies, identities, and expressive activity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 215–233.Google Scholar
Toohey, K. (2000). Learning English at school: Identity, social relations and classroom practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Trent, J. (2008). Promoting investment by Chinese learners in classroom discourse: Integrating content and language in the undergraduate classroom. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 18(1), 30–48.Google Scholar
Warschauer, M. (2009). Digital literacy studies: Progress and prospects, in Baynham, M. and Prinsloo, M. (eds.), The future of literacy studies (pp. 123–140). London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Warschauer, M., & Matuchniak, T. (2010). New technology and digital worlds: Analyzing evidence of equity in access, use, and outcomes. Review of Research in Education, 34(1), 179–225.Google Scholar
Weber, S., and Mitchell, C. (2008). Imaging, keyboarding, and posting identities: Young people and new media technologies. In Buckingham, D. (ed.), Youth, identity, and digital media (pp. 25–47). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Weedon, C. (1987). Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wohlwend, K. E., & Lewis, C. (2011). Critical literacy, critical engagement, and digital technology: Convergence and embodiment in glocal spheres. In Lapp, D. & Fisher, D. (eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (3rd edn.) (pp. 188–194). Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×