The Shahnamah (RAS 239) copied for the Timurid prince, Muhammad Juki (1402–1445) in Herat, has long been considered one of the finest surviving, illustrated Timurid manuscripts. It was presented to the RAS in 1834 by Lieutenant Colonel Doyle (1787–1848), but attracted little scholarly attention until Barbara Brend published her monograph in 2010. The manuscript contains 31 exquisite miniature paintings, two of which (fol. 430v and fol. 531r) were added later during the Mughal period (1526–1761). This article will examine the sumptuous, jewel-like colours employed to depict scenes from the epic and the metals, pigments, and dyes from which they were derived. Precious metals and organic colours made from plants such as indigo and lac extracted from female insects are examined in detail: the methods of their production and extraction, the techniques used for their application, their commercial value, and the prestige they afforded their patrons all contribute to an understanding of what constituted the miniature painters' palette in the Timurid period.

The question about the stability of certain biomolecules is directly connected to the life-detection missions aiming to search for past or present life beyond Earth. The extreme conditions experienced on extraterrestrial planet surface (e.g. Mars), characterized by ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, CO2-atmosphere and reactive species, may destroy the hypothetical traces of life. In this context, the study of the biomolecules behaviour after ionizing radiation exposure could provide support for the onboard instrumentation and data interpretation of the life exploration missions on other planets. Here, as a part of STARLIFE campaign, we investigated the effects of gamma rays on two classes of fungal biomolecules–nucleic acids and melanin pigments – considered as promising biosignatures to search for during the ‘in situ life-detection’ missions beyond Earth.

The genus Arthothelium A. Massal. in Tasmania comprises ten species. Five of these are described as new: A. bacidinum Kantvilas, a saxicolous, littoral species with subglobose apothecia, non-macrocephalic ascospores, 25−40 × 11−19 μm, and containing the pigment Endoaurantiacum-gold which yields a K+ red reaction; A. insolitum Kantvilas, lichenicolous in rainforest and characterized by subglobose apothecia, very large, non-macrocephalic ascospores, 50−80 × 22−40 μm, and containing the pigment Interveniens-brown which reacts K+ olive green; A. macounioides Kantvilas, corticolous in wet forest and characterized by sessile, convex apothecia, macrocephalic ascospores, 29−42 × 11−18 μm, and containing the pigment Endoaurantiacum-gold; A. magenteum Kantvilas, a common wet forest epiphyte with applanate apothecia, non-macrocephalic ascospores, 25−55 × 11−22 μm, and containing a unique maroon-red, K+ pink pigment; and A. subtectum Kantvilas, a saxicolous species with convex apothecia, macrocephalic ascospores, 22−36 × 9−14 μm, and containing Endoaurantiacum-gold. The New Zealand species A. endoaurantiacum Makhija & Patw. and A. suffusum (C. Knight) Müll. Arg., and the Australian A. velatium Müll. Arg. are recorded for Tasmania for the first time. The names A. obtusulum (Nyl.) Müll. Arg., A. pellucidum (C. Knight) Müll. Arg. and A. polycarpum Müll. Arg. are considered synonyms of the widespread A. ampliatum (C. Knight & Mitten) Müll. Arg. Arthothelium ferax Müll. Arg. is a synonym of A. interveniens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. and A. subspectabile Vĕzda & Kantvilas is a synonym of A. suffusum. The sole record of A. macrothecum (Fée) A. Massal. from Tasmania is found to be based on a misidentification. A key to the species is provided. The importance of apothecial pigments, apothecial morphology and ascospore septation is discussed, and three pigments are characterized by their appearance in water and other standard media.

Mars is a primary target of astrobiological interest: its past environmental conditions may have been favourable to the emergence of a prebiotic chemistry and, potentially, biological activity. In situ exploration is currently underway at the Mars surface, and the subsurface (2 m depth) will be explored in the future ESA ExoMars mission. In this context, BIOlogy and Mars EXperiment was performed to evaluate the stability and detectability of organic biomarkers under space and Mars-like conditions. Our data suggested that some target molecules, namely melanin, azelaic acid and nucleic acids, can be detected even after 16 months exposure to Low Earth Orbit conditions by multidisciplinary approaches. We used the same techniques as onboard the ExoMars rover, as Raman and infrared spectroscopies and gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer, and polymerase chain reaction even if this is not planned for the imminent mission to Mars. These results should be taken into account for future Mars exploration.

Phtytoplankton group composition determined by microscopy was compared with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) derived from pigment signatures in surface water samples taken bi-weekly and monthly between October 2018 and September 2019 in the Golden Horn Estuary (Sea of Marmara). A total of 80 eukaryotic phytoplankton taxa belonging to eight algal classes were identified in surface water during the study period. Forty-three taxa (54%) were diatoms, 29 taxa (36%) were dinoflagellates and eight taxa (10%) were other phytoflagellates. The average contribution of diatoms to total phytoplankton abundance decreased considerably (41 to 25%), while the average contribution of dinoflagellates and other phytoflagellates increased markedly (59 to 75%) from the lower to the middle estuary. Chlorophyll-a and seven other group-specific pigments, including fucoxanthin, peridinin, chlorophyll-c1 + c2, alloxanthin, 19′-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin, 19′-butanoyloxyfucoxanthin and divinyl chlorophyll-a were identified in the study area. The relative contribution of the major phytoplankton groups to chlorophyll-a was estimated on three different initial ratio matrices by CHEMTAX. The results obtained were compared with those from microscopic examination. It was concluded that the CHEMTAX method was not accurate enough to characterize the phytoplankton community in the Golden Horn Estuary ecosystem and microscopic analysis was essential to determine the major contributing species to chlorophyll-a.

Non-destructive analytical techniques are now widely and successfully employed in the fields of materials science and conservation. Portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) and portable Raman spectrometry have proven particularly valuable for the rapid in-situ analysis of samples, but their applicability for the analysis of archaeological artefacts for which survival of surface treatments can be negatively impacted by post-depositional processes has been underexplored. Roman relief-sculpted monumental inscriptions from the Antonine Wall, commonly referred to as ‘Distance Slabs’, have offered an excellent opportunity to deploy these non-destructive techniques to determine whether they were originally adorned with pigments and, if so, to identify the colours used. This is a revolutionary approach to identifying colours on ancient sandstone sculpture that transforms our understanding of these unique monuments. Elemental composition analysis by pXRF has confirmed evidence for pigments and this is supported by the Raman results, making it possible to develop and reconstruct a palette of colours that originally brought these monuments to life in vibrant polychrome. The research offers a new methodology for identifying pigments on sandstone sculpture and opens new avenues for investigating other classes of material culture alongside the development of bespoke analytical equipment.

Thirty-five species of Micarea are recorded for Tasmania. Ten are described as new to science: M. ceracea Coppins & Kantvilas (also known from Victoria and New South Wales), characterized by a thallus containing perlatolic and didymic acids, pallid apothecia and 3(–4)-septate ascospores, 10–21 × 3·5–6 µm; M. cinereopallida Coppins & Kantvilas (also known from Chile), with a granular to coralloid, goniocyst-like thallus containing superlatolic acid, pallid to piebald apothecia and (0–)1-septate ascospores, 8–15 × 2·5–5 µm; M. micromelaena Kantvilas & Coppins, similar to the widespread M. melaena but with markedly smaller, 0–1-septate ascospores, 8–12·5 × 2·5–4 µm; M. oreina Kantvilas & Coppins, characterized by a thallus of globose areoles containing gyrophoric acid, black, subglobose apothecia, and 1-septate ascospores, 11–16·5 × 4·5–6·5 µm; M. pallida Coppins & Kantvilas, similar to M. ceracea but distinguished by the presence of porphyrilic acid and relatively small, 3-septate ascospores, 9·5–15 × 2·5–4 µm; M. prasinastra Coppins & Kantvilas (also known from New Zealand), a member of the M. prasina group with a finely granular-sorediose thallus containing gyrophoric acid, unpigmented apothecia and (0–)1-septate ascospores, 7–11·5 × 1·8–3·5 µm; M. rubiginosa Coppins & Kantvilas (also known from Chile), likewise allied to M. prasina but with apothecia containing Rubella-orange pigment and ascospores 0–1-septate, 9·5–17 × 3·5–5·5 µm; M. sandyana Kantvilas, related to M. ternaria (Nyl.) Vĕzda but differing by smaller ascospores, 7–13·5 × 3·5–6 µm; M. saxicola Coppins & Kantvilas, characterized by a relatively thick, grey-brown, areolate thallus, convex, black apothecia and 0(–1)-septate ascospores, 7–18 × 4·5–7 µm; and M. tubaeformis Coppins & Kantvilas, related to M. flagellispora and with filiform ascospores, 45–100 × 1–2 µm, but differing by containing 2′-O-methylperlatolic acid and having funnel-shaped pycnidia. Ten species of Micarea are reported for Tasmania for the first time: M. almbornii Coppins, M. argopsinosa P. M. McCarthy & Elix, M. byssacea (Th. Fr.) Czarnota et al., M. contexta Hedl., M. farinosa Coppins & Aptroot, M. humilis P. M. McCarthy & Elix, M. incrassata Hedl., M. myriocarpa V. Wirth & Vězda ex Coppins, M. nowakii Czarnota & Coppins and M. pseudocoppinsii Brand et al. Also recorded for the first time for Victoria are M. alabastrites (Nyl.) Coppins and M. cinerea (Schaer.) Hedl. A key to Micarea-like lichens in Tasmania, which includes Micarea itself as well as Brianaria, Psilolechia and Leimonis, is presented. Leimonis erratica (Körb.) R. C. Harris & Lendemer and Brianaria tuberculata (Sommerf.) S. Ekman & M. Svensson are recorded for Tasmania for the first time.

In this paper we discuss the use of mineral pigments recovered in stratigraphic position from three excavated archaeological sites (Traful Lake area, Argentina) with the aim of providing information on selection and frequency of use of these raw materials. In this region, human occupation has been recorded since 4000 BP. In order to identify the chromophoric minerals, we applied wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction techniques. Green, red, yellow ochre, and white pigments dated between 3490 and 590 BP were analyzed. The results show that different analytical techniques provide complementary information in order to identify the pigments. Green, red, and yellow samples are related to iron-based compounds. The green pigments can be associated with celadonite and the others with hematite. White samples revealed the presence of hydroxyapatite. Black dots, identified as carbon, were observed in several samples. Red pigments are always predominant, and their relative abundance increases in recent strata. Results are discussed in light of the context and previous reports of chroniclers.

The Paracas culture of Late Formative Period south coastal Peru (c. 900–100 BC) is renowned for its elaborate and colourful ceramics—particularly those decorated using the post-fire painting technique. The materials and the methods used to achieve post-fire painting, however, remain elusive. To investigate the evolution of, and regional variation in, this technology, the authors deploy a range of techniques to analyse a sample of Paracas ceramics curated in museum collections. The results indicate diachronic and regional variations in the paint binders and colourants used by the Paracas potters, which correlate with changes in vessel form and iconography over time.

Hydrogen forms of natural mordenite and clinoptilolite were used as catalysts for styrene oligomerization and as matrices to hold the resultant oligomers in order to prepare intense and light-resistant pigments. In contrast to synthetic zeolites of similar pore sizes (mainly H-ZSM-5, H-mordenite), the natural zeolites did not form products with an intense (pink) colouration. H-mordenite samples treated with styrene developed some colour due to styrene oligomers (the chromophore) whereas, in treated clinoptilolites, colour formation was negligible due to the lack of access of styrene molecules into the elliptical channels. The results of catalytic tests for cracking of cumene (cumene and styrene have similar molecular sizes) were consistent with the styrene oligomerization results. They indicate a noticeable catalytic activity with natural H-mordenite and a lack of activity with clinoptilolite. On the other hand, catalytic tests for propan-2-ol decomposition indicate a high activity with both natural zeolites, which confirms the presence of acid sites and their accessibility to small alcohol molecules.

Pigments similar to the famous Maya Blue were prepared by entrapment of indigo inside the channels of natural zeolites such as clinoptilolite and mordenite. The zeolites were mixed and ground with indigo and then heated at 150°C. Surplus (unbound) dye was removed by solvent extraction or by vacuum sublimation. As is the case when synthetic zeolites are used as matrices, the colouration of the resulting pigments could be modified by the previous cation exchange of the zeolite.

Colour was a key feature of Greek and Roman sculpture, but due to the current bare-marble appearance of many such statues, it is now frequently overlooked. This is illustrated here by the first study of polychromy in Roman statues from the province of Africa Proconsularis. Five sculptural fragments dating to the second and third centuries AD were examined using techniques including XRF analysis, and a variety of pigments were detected. The differing colour schemes presented by each of the pieces are here assessed, and consideration is given to the technical process by which they were coloured, the significance of their decoration and the potential for applying similar approaches in future studies of ancient statuary.

Postglacial climatic conditions were inferred from cores taken from Big Lake in southern British Columbia. Low concentrations of nonarboreal pollen and pigments near the base of the core suggest that initial conditions were cool. Increases in both aquatic and terrestrial production suggest warmer and moister conditions until ∼8500 cal yr B.P. Hyposaline diatom assemblages, increases in nonarboreal pollen, and increased concentrations of pigments suggest the onset of arid conditions from ∼8500 to ∼7500 cal yr B.P. Slightly less arid conditions are inferred from ∼7500 until ∼6660 cal yr B.P. based on the diatoms, small increases and greater variability in biogenic silica and pigments, and higher percentages of arboreal pollen. At ∼6600 cal yr B.P., changes in diatoms, pigments, biogenic silica, and organic matter suggest that Big Lake became fresh, deep, and eutrophic until ∼3600 cal yr B.P., when water levels and nutrients decreased slightly. Our paleoclimatic inferences are similar to pollen-based studies until ∼6600 cal yr B.P. However, unlike these studies, our multiple lines of evidence from Big Lake imply large changes in effective moisture since 6000 cal yr B.P.

Excavations to the east of the Roman fort of Inveresk in 2010 partly uncovered remains of a Mithraeum — the first from Scotland and the earliest securely dated example from Britain. A large rectangular sunken feature with lateral benches contained two altars buried face down at its north-western end. One was dedicated to Mithras, with iconography of both Mithras and Apollo as well as libation vessels. The other was dedicated to Sol, with a frieze above showing the Four Seasons. The Sol altar had a recess in the rear for a light which would have shone through his pierced rays, eyes, mouth and nose. Remains of an iron rod behind the nose hint at a more complex arrangement to create special visual or acoustic effects. Paint and plaster traces were recorded on both altars. The dedicator, G(aius) Cas(sius) Fla(…), a centurion, may have been in command of the garrison or of a legionary detachment. Stylistic links, especially in letter form, connect the work to sculptors of Legio XX. The stones and pigments are most likely from local sources. Little of the setting could be explored but there were traces of a precinct. A pit beside the Mithraeum included a large part of a well-used fineware beaker, which represented a deliberate offering. The Supplementary Material available online (http://journals.cambridge.org/bri) contains detailed descriptions of the altars, observations on the stone-working technology, lithology and pigment analysis, with extensive illustrations.

In this study, an integrated analytical method was developed to investigate the composition of both the inorganic pigments and organic binders of polychrome relics in Maiji Mountain Grottoes in northwestern China. Cross-sections of each sample were prepared at the beginning of the study, and all experiments were carried out on these cross-sections. Polychromic structures were revealed by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy-backscattered electron imaging. Inorganic materials were determined by using SEM coupled with an energy dispersive spectrometer and μ-Raman spectrometer, whereas organic materials were identified by staining techniques and highly sensitive and specific immunofluorescence microscopy. Data showed that the red colors are attributed to one or two pigments of red ochre, cinnabar, and minium; the blue pigment is natural lazurite; the green pigment is ascribed to atacamite; the white color is attributed to potassium feldspar; and the black surface is formed by the discoloration of minium to plattnerite under the influence of environmental factors. Regarding organic binders used in painting and preparation layers, mammalian animal glue and chicken egg white were both found alone or in mixture. Finally, the conclusion is made that the Secco technique is employed in polychrome relics from Maiji Mountain Grottoes.

Megalithic art is a well-known feature of the Neolithic chambered tombs of Atlantic Europe. The surviving evidence consists largely of carved motifs, and, until recently, painted megalithic art was thought to be restricted to western Iberia. Recent discoveries have expanded that distribution, assisted by new methods of detection, recording and analysis. The discovery of painted motifs at Barnenez in Brittany, reported here, marks a breakthrough and raises the possibility that many megalithic tombs in north-west Europe were once coloured as well as carved. Similarities in motifs and techniques also point to the likelihood of direct connections with Iberia.

The phytoplankton community structure and abundance in the south-eastern Black Sea was measured from February to December 2009 using and comparing high performance liquid chromatography pigment and microscopy analyses. The phytoplankton community was characterized by diatoms, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores, as revealed by both techniques. Fucoxanthin, diadinoxanthin, peridinin and 19′-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin were the main accessory pigments showing significant correlation with diatom-C r2 = 0.56–0.71, P < 0.05), diatom-C (r2 = 0.85–0.91, P < 0.001), dinoflagellate-C (r2 = 0.39–0.88, P < 0.05) and coccolithophore-C (r2 = 0.80–0.71, P < 0.05), respectively. Microscopy counts indicated a total of 89 species, 71% of which were dinoflagellates, 23% were diatoms and 6% other species (mainly coccolithophores). Pigment-CHEMTAX analysis also indicated the presence of pico- and nanoplankton. Phytoplankton carbon (phyto-C) concentrations were highest in the upper water column, whereas chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) showed a deep maximum. Average phyto-C was higher at the coastal station (291 ± 66 µg l−1) than at the offshore station (258 ± 35 µg l−1), not statistically different (P > 0.05). The coastal station also had higher Chl-a concentrations (0.52–3.83 µg l−1) compared to the offshore station (0.63–2.55 µg l−1), not significant (P > 0.05). Our results are consistent with other studies and indicate that the southern Black Sea is shifting towards mesotrophy with the increasing prevalence of dinoflagellates compared to diatoms.

X-ray powder diffraction data, unit-cell parameters, and space group for a sodium azobarbituric acid dihydrate are presented [a = 3.546 (1) Å, b = 9.210 (2) Å, c = 9.738 (4) Å, α = 104.07 (4)°, β = 98.09 (6)°, γ = 98.80 (2)°, unit-cell volume V = 299.6 Å3, Z = 1, and space group P − 1]. All the measured lines were indexed. No detectable impurities were observed.

Diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) is a pigment widely used in modern paints for industrial and artistic applications. Identification of this pigment in paint for art authentication and forensics has previously been accomplished with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry or Laser Raman. Three commercial artist's paints containing DPP were analyzed by x-ray diffraction (XRD). Alpha phase DPP was identified in two of the samples, barite extender the only crystalline component identified in the other sample. In conclusion, XRD analysis of paint samples can identify DPP, as can other organic analyses, but has the advantage of being non-destructive and also identifying the crystal structure. However, the fact that in one sample only extender could be identified does impose some limitations on the analysis of paints.