Human–wildlife conflict is a critical and complex challenge in wildlife conservation. It arises when humans and wildlife interact and one or both parties suffer negative consequences from the interaction. This research assessed the extent of damage resulting from human–African buffalo Syncerus caffer conflict and explored mitigation strategies. We used a semi-structured questionnaire-based survey of 131 households randomly selected in Kambi ya Simba, Oldeani and Tloma villages surrounding Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Our results revealed that resource competition was the main factor inducing human–African buffalo conflict. The impacts reported most frequently were crop damage (especially during the wet seasons) and human casualties. Crops that were most often damaged included maize, beans, wheat, peas and coffee. To minimize buffalo crop depredation, farmers currently use traditional mitigation approaches such as guarding farms, lighting fires, using torchlight and vocal and other auditory deterrents. In addition, a local coffee estate installed electrified fencing around its plantation. Our findings demonstrate the impacts of human–African buffalo conflict on local communities and the importance of continuing human–African buffalo conflict monitoring to improve conservation action and increase the participation of the local community in conservation activities. To minimize human–African buffalo conflict, we recommend conservation strategies that improve the natural habitat of the African buffalo. Most importantly, providing communities affected by human–African buffalo conflict with modern and more effective mitigation methods, paired with increased community awareness of the use of these methods, could result in significant reductions in the human cost of human–African buffalo conflict.

The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), a mammal species whose population is declining, can play a role as a reservoir or carrier of a wide number of arthropod-borne pathogens. Translocation procedures have been used as an alternative approach for species conservation. However, the veterinary aspects of this sort of procedures are extremely important to minimize the impact on animal health. In order to detect Bartonella and haemoplasmas, two important group of bacterial that have an impact in both human and animal health, EDTA whole-blood samples were screened for the presence of these bacterial pathogens by molecular techniques. As a result, a molecular occurrence of 4.1 and 15.4% for Bartonella spp. and haemoplasmas, respectively, was reported among 97 wild buffaloes sampled during a translocation procedure from Marromeu to Gorongosa Reserve, Mozambique. Additionally, phylogenetic analyses of the obtained sequences were conducted. At least, three bovine-associated pathogens, namely B. bovis, M. wenyonii and ‘Candidatus M. haemobos’, as well as a probably new Bartonella genotype/species were detected in S. caffer. Further studies are needed in order to determine whether these bacterial species may cause impact in buffaloes and other sympatric ruminant species living in the release site.

Corridor disease is an acute, fatal disease of cattle caused by buffalo-adapted Theileria parva. This is a nationally controlled disease in South Africa and strict control measures apply for the movement of buffalo, which includes mandatory testing for the presence of T. parva and other controlled diseases. Accurate diagnosis of the T. parva carrier state in buffalo using the official real-time hybridization PCR assay (Sibeko et al. 2008), has been shown to be affected by concurrent infection with T. sp. (buffalo)-like parasites. We describe the Hybrid II assay, a real-time hybridization PCR method, which compares well with the official hybridization assay in terms of specificity and sensitivity. It is, however, not influenced by mixed infections of T. sp. (buffalo)-like parasites and is as such a significant improvement on the current hybridization assay.

Patterns of association in many ungulate species vary throughout the year, with males periodically segregating from females. Sexual segregation can occur if males and females use different habitats (habitat segregation), occupy exclusive ranges (spatial segregation) or occur in separate social groups (social segregation). Previous studies on social segregation in ungulates have focused mostly on non-reproductive periods and species in temperate systems with short mating seasons. This study examined social segregation in African buffalo Syncerus caffer at Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, South Africa, during their 6-month mating season. During this period, mature male buffalo alternated between joining mixed-sex herds which comprise females and young, and small all-male groups. Activity patterns of male buffalo in both group types were examined to determine if differences in time allocation or activity asynchrony could explain the observed segregation. Mature males foraged for less time than both adult females and younger males when they were with mixed herds. Mature male buffalo differed in how their active time was apportioned to foraging and reproductive activities between the two group types. Females maintained group cohesion despite only low synchrony in activity, therefore segregation of male buffalo could not be explained by the activity budget hypothesis. For males in mixed-sex herds, reproductive activities were apparently at the expense of foraging time. The high time and energy costs of reproductive activities were probably responsible for the periodic separation of male buffalo from mixed herds during the extended mating period.

Osteophagia, variable serum calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) concentration, high serum alkaline phosphatase activity, a high growth rate, and a large skeletal mass, all suggest that Ca and P requirements and availability are finely balanced in giraffes. The mineral content of some marker bones in skeletons obtained from adult male giraffes (browsers) and adult male African buffaloes (grazers of similar body mass) were compared to assess the idea of critical Ca and P balance. Our results show that the P concentration of plasma varies more than Ca concentration, and that the Ca content of giraffe bones (0.196±0.01 g/g) and buffalo (0.202±0.006 g/g) varies more than P content (0.095±0.002 in both). The average Ca and P content of the bones analysed was similar in both species (Ca=∼20.0%, P=∼9.5%). Giraffe skeletons, however, contain three times more Ca and P than do buffalo skeletons. This translates into a 1.5–2.0 fold higher Ca requirement for giraffes, with which they seem to cope effectively by selection for Ca-rich, dicotyledonous, browse. Sources of P to meet requirements are not obvious and a seasonal deficiency of P is a more likely cause of observed osteophagia than Ca deficiency. Giraffe rib P density, the best measure of P balance, of 0.142±0.01 g/cm3 is, however, above the deficiency threshold. Bone mineral content (Ca and P) correlates well with bone density and shows only slight differences between adult males of the two species.

Unique features of giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis anatomy are its long neck and slender long limbs. Its neck vertebrae should be light and have low density to make it manoeuvrable while the limb bones should have high density to provide the strength to support the giraffe's mass. Giraffes also have a very high vertical growth rate, a diet with a high Ca:P ratio, and a skeleton that constitutes a high proportion of its body mass. To investigate whether the giraffe skeleton is affected by its anatomy and biology, giraffe bone density and morphology were compared with those of African buffalo Syncerus caffer, an artiodactyl of similar mass, more conventional anatomy, a lower vertical growth rate, and different diet. Our results show that except for minor differences the density of giraffe bones is the same as that of buffaloes. Giraffe limb bones have a slightly greater diameter and much thicker walls than equivalent bones in buffaloes. Giraffe cervical vertebrae, unlike those in buffaloes, decrease in mass with cranial distance. We conclude that giraffe biology and anatomy do not affect bone deposition or density. However, other characteristics of their skeletons seem to be adaptations to their unique anatomy.

Many species exhibit skewed sex ratios at birth. Here we investigate the relationships between environmental and maternal variables (as surrogates for maternal condition) and foetal sex in African buffalo Syncerus caffer and elephant Loxodonta africana of the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Using logistic regression no significant effect was found of year, maternal lactational status, maternal age, rainfall or density on foetal sex ratio. Using a subset of our data, it was also concluded that maternal body condition did not affect foetal sex ratio in buffalo. Our analyses failed to support hypotheses predicting that mothers will skew the sex ratios of their offspring in relation to their body condition. In this study, buffalo and elephant produced offspring with a sex ratio close to parity. Our results are discussed in light of the implications for testing such hypotheses in analyses of population level.

During 1993–2000 the conservation status of forest buffalo Syncerus caffer was investigated in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park region, northern Congo. Data from dung counts collected during a number of ecological reconnaissance surveys in and around the National Park showed that the preferred buffalo habitat was open canopy swamps and forest clearings associated with watercourses. Buffalo abundance was very low in terra firma forest more than 250 m from water, and signs were restricted to large elephant trails connecting watercourses and clearings. The clumped distribution of the buffalo appeared to be a result of the highly patchy distribution of their food resources. In terra firma forest preferred food species were poorly represented, whereas in open swamp and sedge clearings they were more abundant. Low overall numbers, highly patchy distribution, small group size, and low effort-high return for hunters, including sport hunters, mean that buffalo must be considered a conservation priority in this environment.

Urine from the buffalo, Syncerus caffer, a natural host of the tsetse, has been shown previously to be a potent olfactory attractant for tsetse in the field. The attractant compounds have been found to be extractable into dichloromethane. Fractionation of the extracts by liquid flash chromatography yielded four fractions one of which gave a seven-fold increase in trap catches in the field compared to the control traps. Gas Chromatographie and gas chromatography–mass spectrometric analysis of this fraction revealed the presence of seven simple phenols including phenol itself.