Element contents
Series: Elements in Contentious Politics
Protest Walls
Co-authoring Contentious Repertoires
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 February 2025
Summary
Protest walls have played an important role in movement communication and mobilizing the public. We focus on contentious performances and the way diverse actors co-authored spaces into the protest walls that were seen in Hong Kong and other countries including Lebanon, Iraq, and Taiwan. We argue that once created, protest walls can become objects symbolic of dissent. They exist as a lexicon-a complex language of symbols and spatial practices. This language is now an internationally understood method of protest which has a high degree of transferability and can be adapted into local contentious contexts or used to transmit local concerns into the international consciousness. Finally, we show that the protest wall can shed new light on the relationship between activists, their claims and their targets that does not exist in other types of contentious performance.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in Contentious PoliticsOnline ISBN: 9781009636582Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 06 March 2025
References
Abaza, M. (2013). “Walls, Segregating Downtown Cairo and the Mohammed Mahmud Street Graffiti.” Theory, Culture & Society, 30(1), 122–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrams, B., & Gardner, P. R. (Eds.) (2023). Symbolic Objects in Contentious Politics. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abu-Amr, Z. (1988). “The Palestinian Uprising in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.” Arab Studies Quarterly, 10(4), 384–405.Google Scholar
Aiello, G. (2006). “Theoretical Advances in Critical Visual Analysis: Perception, Ideology, Mythologies and Social Semiotics.” Journal of Visual Literacy, 26(2), 89–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almeida, P. (2019). Social Movements: The Structure of Collective Mobilization. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Aslanidis, P. (2018). “Measuring Populist Discourse with Semantic Text Analysis: An Application on Grassroots Populist Mobilization.” Quality & Quantity, 52, 1241–1263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Awad, S. H., & Wagoner, B. (2020). “Protest Symbols.” Current Opinion in Psychology, 35, 98–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, M. (Ed.) (2015). Translating Dissent: Voices from and with the Egyptian Revolution. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benford, R., & Snow, D. (2000). “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 611–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, W. L., & Segerberg, A. (2012). “The Logic of Connective Action: Digital Media and the Personalization of Contentious Politics.” Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 739–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birtles, B. (2019, August 3). Hong Kong protests: Colourful “Lennon Walls” become flashpoints of violence. ABC News. www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-03/the-viral-video-of-the-hong-kong-protester-taking-punches/11377980.Google Scholar
Blažek, P., Laube, R., & Pospíšil, F. (2020). Lennon’s Wall in Prague: Studies, Interviews, Documents. Prague: Twentieth Century Memorial Museum.Google Scholar
Blokland, T. (2009). “Celebrating Local Histories and Defining Neighbourhood Communities: Place-making in a Gentrified Neighbourhood.” Urban Studies, 46(8), 1593–1610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bren, P. (2008). “Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall … Is the West the Fairest of Them All?: Czechoslovak Normalization and Its (Dis)contents.” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 9(4), 831–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, J., Thompson, S., & Finklea, B. (2013). Fundamentals of Media Effects. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Cervi, L., & Divon, T. (2023). “Playful Activism: Memetic Performances of Palestinian Resistance in TikTok# Challenges.” Social Media + Society, 9(1), 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, K., Harris, A., & Choi, J. H. (2022). “Rhizomatic Activism: A Case Study of Lennon Walls in Hong Kong.” In Elspeth, T. (Ed.), Creative Activism: Research, Pedagogy and Practice. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, pp. 335–358.Google Scholar
Chan, S. K-L., Lim, W-T., Lee, G-H., & Wong, N-C. (2023). “The Eye4HK Meme and the Construction of An Injustice Frame.” Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 15(2), 33–47.Google Scholar
Chang, M. H. (1996). “The Thought of Deng Xiaoping.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 29(4), 377–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, S. S., & Chiang, J. H. C. (2020) “Review of the Exhibition Oppression and Overcoming: Social Movements in Post-War Taiwan, National Museum of Taiwan History, 28 May 2019–17 May 2020.” International Journal of Taiwan Studies, 3(2), 343–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, E., & Chan, W. (2017). “Explaining Spontaneous Occupation: Antecedents, Contingencies and Spaces in the Umbrella Movement.” Social Movement Studies, 16(2), 222–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, E., & Yuen, S. (2019). “Memory in Movement: Collective Identity and Memory Contestation in Hong Kong’s Tiananmen Vigils.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 24(4), 419–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corlin, M. (2024). “Archives for the Future: The 2019 Lennon Walls of Hong Kong.” Journal of Visual Culture (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1177/14704129241237899.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
da Matta, P. (2020, February 10). Who’s laughing now? How the Joker became a symbol for anti-government protests around the world. Utblick Magazine. www.utblick.org/2020/02/10/whos-laughing-now-how-the-joker-became-a-symbol-for-anti-government-protests-around-the-world/.Google Scholar
Degani, A. (2016). “From Republic to Empire: Israel and the Palestinians after 1948.” In Cavanagh, E. & Veracini, L. (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism. New York: Routledge, pp. 353–367.Google Scholar
della Porta, D. (2008). “Eventful Protest, Global Conflicts.” Distinktion: Scandinavian Journal of Social Theory, 9(2), 27–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
della Porta, D. (2011). “Communications in Movements: Social Movements as Agents of Participatory Democracy.” Information, Communication & Society, 14(6), 800–819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D’Errico, F., & Poggi, I. (2016). “‘The Bitter Laughter’: When Parody Is a Moral and Affective Priming in Political Persuasion.” Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doerr, N., & Teune, S. (2012). “The Imagery of Power Facing the Power of Imagery: Towards a Visual Analysis of Social Movements.” In Klimke, M., Fahlenbrach, K., Scharloth, J., & Wong, L. (Eds.), The Establishment Responds: Power, Politics and Protest since 1945. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 43–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doerr, N., Mattoni, A., & Teune, S. (Eds) (2013). Advances in the Visual Analysis of Social Movements. Bingley: Emerald.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evanson, R. K. (1986). “Political Repression in Czechoslovakia, 1948–1984.” Canadian Slavonic Papers, 28(1), 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eyerman, R. (2005). “How Social Movements Move.” In Flam, H. & King, D. (eds.), Emotions and Social Movements. New York: Routledge, pp. 41–56.Google Scholar
Fong, B. C. H. (2022). “Diaspora Formation and Mobilisation: The Emerging Hong Kong Diaspora in the Anti-extradition Bill Movement.” Nations and Nationalism 28(3), 1061–1079.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gahan, P., & Pekarek, A. (2013). “Social Movement Theory, Collective Action Frames and Union Theory: A Critique and Extension.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 51(4), 754–776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallo-Cruz, S. R. (2024). Have Repertoire, Will Travel Nonviolence as Global Contentious Performance. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrett, D. (2014). “Superheroes in Hong Kong’s Political Resistance: Icons, Images, and Opposition.” PS: Political Science & Politics, 47(1), 112–119.Google Scholar
Gaufman, E. (2021). “The Gendered Iconography of the Belarus Protest.” New Perspectives, 29(1), 80–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geertz, C. (1957). “Ethos, World-View and the Analysis of Sacred Symbols.” Antioch Review, 17(4), 421–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, J. J., & Leidner, D. E. (2019). “From Clicktivism to Hacktivism: Understanding Digital Activism.” Information and Organization, 29(3), 100249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infoandorg.2019.04.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerner, D. J. (1991). “Palestinians, Israelis, and the Intifada: The Third Year and beyond. Arab Studies Quarterly, 13(3/4), 19–64.Google Scholar
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gold, T. (2022). “Contentious Tactics as Jazz Performances: A Pragmatist Approach to the Study of Repertoire Change.” Sociological Theory, 40(3), 249–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, M. (2005). From Comrade to Citizen: The Struggle for Political Rights in China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gordon-Zolov, T., & Zolov, E. (2022). The Walls of Santiago: Social Revolution and Political Aesthetics in Contemporary Chile. New York: Berghahm Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafez, S. (2019). Women of the Midan: The Untold Stories of Egypt’s Revolutionaries. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamdy, S. (2016). “All Eyes on Egypt: Islam and the Medical Use of Dead Bodies Amidst Cairo’s Political Unrest.” Medical Anthropology, 35(3), 220–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamdy, B., & Karl, D. (Eds.) (2014). Walls of Freedom: Street Art of the Egyptian Revolution. Berlin: From Here to Fame.Google Scholar
Hardin, M., Lynn, S., Walsdorf, K., & Hardin, B. (2002). “The Framing of Sexual Difference in SI for Kids Editorial Photos.” Mass Communication and Society, 5(3): 341–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harvey, D. (1996). Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Harvey, D. (2012). Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution. New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Hill, S. (2013). Digital Revolutions: Activism in the Internet Age. Oxford: New Internationalist.Google Scholar
Hioe, B. (2022). “Moving beyond Projection: Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the China Factor.” In Liu, W., Chien, C., Chung, C., & Tse, E. (Eds.), Reorienting Hong Kong’s Resistance: Leftism, Decoloniality, and Internationalism. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 233–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ho, M.-S. (2024). “Hongkongers’ International Front: Diaspora Activism during and after the 2019 Anti-Extradition Protest.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 54(2), 238–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ho, M.-S., & Chen, W. A. (2024). “Tactical Choices of Diaspora Movements: Comparing Hongkonger, Thai, Burmese, and Ukrainian Mobilizations in Taiwan.” Ethnic and Racial Studies (Online first). https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2024.2372041.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodge, R., & Kress, G. (1988). Social Semiotics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Hou, J. (2020, January 18). “Lennon Walls” herald a sticky-note revolution in Hong Kong. Conversation. https://theconversation.com/lennon-walls-herald-a-sticky-note-revolution-in-hong-kong-129740?xid=PS_smithsonian.Google Scholar
Jasper, J. M. (1997). The Art of Moral Protest Culture. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jasper, J. M. (1998). “The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive Emotions in and Around Social Movements.” Sociological Forum 13(3), 397–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jewitt, C., Bezemer, J., & O’Halloran, K. (2016). Introducing Multimodality. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, W. C. (1980). “The Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China.” Review of Socialist Law, 6(4), 405–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, R., & Chau, D. (2022). “Metalinguistic Tactics in the Hong Kong Protest Movement.” Journal of Language and Politics, 21(1), 143–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khazraee, E., and Losey, J. (2016). “Evolving Repertoires: Digital Media Use in Contentious Politics.” Communication and the Public, 1(1), 39–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiley, S. (2019, November 11). The humble tuk-tuk has become a symbol of Iraq’s uprising. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/10/middleeast/iraq-tuk-tuk-revolution-kiley/index.html.Google Scholar
Lai, Y., & Sing, M. (2020). “Solidarity and Implications of a Leaderless Movement in Hong Kong: Its Strengths and Limitations.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 53(4), 41–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lam, C., Chan, C. S., & Hamamura, T. (2021). “Time-dependent Association between Mass Protests and Psychological Distress on Social Media: A Text Mining Study during the 2019 Anti-government Social Unrest in Hong Kong.” Journal of Affective Disorders, 291, 177–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, F. L. F. (2023). “Proactive Internationalization and Diaspora Mobilization in a Networked Movement: The Case of Hong Kong’s Anti-Extradition Bill Protests.” Social Movement Studies, 22(2): 232–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, F. L. F., Yuen, S., Tang, G., & Cheng, E. W. (2019). “Hong Kong’s Summer of Uprising: From Anti-extradition to Anti-authoritarian Protests.” China Review, 19(4), 1–32.Google Scholar
Lee, F. L. F., Tang, G., Yuen, S., & Cheng, E. W. (2020). “Five Demands and (Not Quite) Beyond: Claim Making and Ideology in Hong Kong’s Anti-Extradition Bill Movement.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 53(4): 22–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, F. L. F., Liang, H., Cheng, E. W., Tang, G., & Yuen, S. (2022). “Affordances, Movement Dynamics, and a Centralized Digital Communication Platform in a Networked Movement.” Information, Communication & Society, 25(12), 1699–1716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lennon, J. (2014). “Assembling a Revolution: Graffiti, Cairo and the Arab Spring.” Cultural Studies Review, 20(1), 237–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y.-T., & Liu, J. C.-E. (2021). “‘Hong Kong, Add Oil!’: Examining Post-it Notes on the Lennon Walls in the 2019 Hong Kong Movement.” Contexts, 20(1), 68–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y.-T., & Fong, K. Y. (2022). “Donating to the Fight for Democracy: The Connective Diaspora Activism of Overseas Hong Kongers and Taiwanese in the 2019 Anti-extradition Bill Movement.” Global Networks 22(2), 292–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y.-T., & Whitworth, K. (2022). “Reclaiming Hong Kong through Neighborhood-making: A Study of the 2019 Anti-ELAB Movement.” Urban Studies, 59(7), 1372–1388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y.-T., & Whitworth, K. (2023). “Contentious Repertoires: Examining Lennon Walls in Hong Kong’s Social Unrest of 2019.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 53(1), 124–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y.-T., & Whitworth, K. (2024). “Coordinating and Doxing Data: Hong Kong Protesters’ and Government Supporters’ Data Strategies in the Age of Datafication.” Social Movement Studies, 23(3), 355–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liao, S. (2022). “Feeling the 2019 Hong Kong Anti-ELAB Movement: Emotion and Affect on the Lennon Walls.” Chinese Journal of Communication, 15(3), 355–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Zilber, T. (1998). Narrative Research: Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lofland, J. (1996). Social Movement Organizations: Guide to Research on Insurgent Realities. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
McAdam, D., McCarthy, J., & Zald, M. (eds.) (1996). Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGahern, U. (2017). “Protesting at the Crossroads: Framing ‘In-between Places’ in Spatial Analyses of Contention.” Political Geography, 59, 92–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merari, A., Prat, T., & Tal, D. (1989). “The Palestinian Intifada: An Analysis of a Popular Uprising after Seven Months.” Terrorism and Political Violence, 1(2), 177–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohamed, M., & Mohamed, T. F. (2022). “The Way We See It: Poetic-Visual Reciprocity in Egyptian Street Art Since 2011.” Journal of Arabic Literature, 53(3–4), 351–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mustafa, B. (2023). “All about Iraq: Re-Modifying Older Slogans and Chants in Tishreen [October] Protests.” Journal of Asian and African Studies, 58(3), 401–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nachman, L., Chan, N., & Mok, C. W. J. (2020, July 8). Hong Kongers say Taiwan is their first choice as exile looms. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/hong-kong-exile-taiwan-first-choice/.Google Scholar
Nachmani, A. (2001). “The Palestinian Intifada 1987–1993: The Dynamics of Symbols and Symbolic Realities, the Role of Symbols, Rituals and Myths in National Struggles.” Civil Wars, 4(1), 49–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panlee, P. (2021). “Visualising the Right to Protest Graffiti and Eviction under Thailand’s Military Regime.” City, 25(3–4), 497–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patsiaouras, G., Veneti, A., & Green, W. (2018). “Marketing, Art and Voices of Dissent: Promotional Methods of Protest Art by the 2014 Hong Kong’s Umbrella Movement.” Marketing Theory, 18(1), 75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peteet, J. (1996). “The Writing on the Walls: The Graffiti of the Intifada.” Cultural Anthropology, 11(2), 139–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philipps, A. (2012). “Visual Protest Material as Empirical Data.” Visual Communication, 11(1), 3–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rühlig, T. (2016). “‘Do You Hear the People Sing’ ‘Lift Your Umbrella’? Understanding Hong Kong’s Pro-democratic Umbrella Movement through YouTube Music Videos.” China Perspectives, 4, 59–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sewell, W. H. (1996). “Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille.” Theory and Society, 25(6), 841–881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sewell, W. H. (2005). Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheng, H. (1990). “Big Character Posters in China: A Historical Survey.” Journal of Chinese Law, 4, 234–256.Google Scholar
Silver, I. (1997). “Constructing ‘Social Change’ through Philanthropy: Boundary Framing and the Articulation of Vocabularies of Motives for Social Movement Participation.” Sociological Inquiry, 67(4), 488–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Šmidrkal, V. (2016). “Abolish the Army? The Ideal of Democracy and the Transformation of the Czechoslovak Military after 1918 and 1989.” European Review of History, 23(4), 623–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stempack, M., & Teng, F. (2019). The Civic Stack: Hong Kong Protest Movement Tech. Civic Hall. https://civichall.org/civicist/the-civic-stack-hong-kong-protest-movement-tech/.Google Scholar
Stewart, C., Smith, C. A., & Denton, R. E. Jr. (2007). Persuasion and Social Movements. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Tait, R. (2019, August 4). Imagine no graffiti: New regulation to fall on Prague’s Lennon wall. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/04/imagine-no-graffiti-new-regulation-to-fall-on-pragues-lennon-wall.Google Scholar
Tarrow, S. (2008). “Charles Tilly and the Practice of Contentious Politics.” Social Movement Studies, 7(3), 225–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarrow, S. (2013). The Language of Contention: Revolutions in Words, 1688–2012. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilly, C. (1977). “Getting It Together in Burgundy, 1675–1975.” Theory and Society, 4(4), 479–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilly, C. (2006). Regimes and Repertoires. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilly, C. (2008). Contentious Performances. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilly, C., & Tarrow, S. (2015). Contentious Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Toenjes, A. (2015). “This Wall Speaks: Graffiti and Transnational Networks in Palestine.” Jerusalem Quarterly, 61, 55–68.Google Scholar
Valjakka, M. (2020). “Co-Authoring the Space: The Initial Lennon Wall Hong Kong in 2014 as Socially Engaged Creativity.” Cultural Studies, 34(6), 979–1006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veg, S. (2016). “Creating a Textual Public Space: Slogans and Texts from Hong Kong’s Umbrella Movement.” The Journal of Asian Studies, 75(3), 673–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wada, T. (2012). “Modularity and Transferability of Repertoires of Contention.” Social Problems, 59(4), 544–571.Google Scholar
Wang, G., & Ma, X. (2021). “Were They Illegal Rioters or Pro-democracy Protesters? Examining the 2019–20 Hong Kong Protests in China Daily and the New York Times.” Critical Arts, 35(2), 85–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitworth, K., & Li, Y.-T. (2023). “Visual Framing: The Use of COVID-19 in the Mobilization of Hong Kong Protest.” The China Quarterly, 253, 19–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, K. (1997). The Prague Spring and Its Aftermath: Czechoslovak Politics, 1968–1970. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, M. E. (2017). “A Noble Balancing Act: Museums, Political Activism and Protest Art.” Museum International, 69(3–4), 66–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winegar, J. (2016). “A Civilized Revolution: Aesthetics and Political Action in Egypt.” American Ethnologist, 43(4), 609–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, N. (2019, August 7). Masked men destroy Hong Kong Lennon Wall at Australia’s University of Queensland. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/aug/07/masked-men-destroy-hong-kong-lennon-wall-at-australias-university-of-queensland.Google Scholar
Zieleniec, A. (2016). “The Right to Write the City: Lefebvre and Graffiti.” Environnement Urbain/Urban Environment, 10, 1–20.Google Scholar